18th Century Europe: Revolutions, Enlightenment, and Industrialization
England: Revolutions and Parliaments
King Charles I wanted to govern without regard to Parliament, and political opposition was radicalized in the hands of the bourgeoisie and the popular groups. It sparked a revolution, and in 1642, civil war broke out between royalists and parliamentarians. Charles I was defeated and executed in 1649 (First English Revolution).
In 1688, the outbreak of the Second English Revolution led to the oath of William and Mary’s Bill of Rights, the act by which monarchs became parliamentarians. In the English Parliament, they were divided into two parties: the Tories and Whigs.
The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that spread throughout Europe and America in the eighteenth century. Its ideology was reflected in the Encyclopedia, a book published in France between 1751 and 1772. The Encyclopedia summarized all the knowledge of its time and paid special attention to the popularization of science. Its characteristics were:
- Renaissance development of anthropocentrism
- Confidence in human reason
- Faith in progress, which made the picture optimistic about the future
- Right to happiness in this world
- Nature is considered the beginning of the good
Enlightened Despotism
In the second half of the eighteenth century, several absolute monarchs promoted a series of reforms aimed at achieving the <> of their subjects. Their ideal was encapsulated in the phrase: “Everything for the people, but without the people.” Enlightened despotism boosted reforms in all areas:
- Politics: The state was organized centrally, and laws were common throughout the kingdom, which applied to officers.
- Society: In some countries, measures such as the abolition of serfdom and the decline of the privileges of the nobility were taken.
- Economy: Reforms were carried out, such as the diffusion of new crops, reforestation of lands, etc.
- Culture: Academies were created, and institutions were promoted to enhance know-how.
- Religion: Enlightened despotism proclaimed religious tolerance but limited the power of the clergy and the papacy.
The most prominent representatives of this form of government were Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine II of Russia, Charles III of Spain, and Joseph II of Austria.
The European Balance
Highlighted powers: Britain, France, Prussia, and Austria, whose rivalry for continental or sea hegemony led to a series of conflicts:
- The War of the Austrian Succession: Pitted France against Austria and Prussia. Prussia gained territories from Austria (Silesia).
- The Seven Years’ War: Fought between Britain and France for control of colonial trade. The Peace of Paris ended the war. France had to cede to Britain the US territories of Canada and India. It also meant the decline of France and the huge expansion of Britain.
Change of Dynasty in Spain
When King Charles II of Spain died childless, the Spanish Succession War broke out, originated by the aspiration to the throne of a Bourbon, Philip of Anjou, and a Habsburg, Archduke Charles. It entailed:
- An international war: The clash of France with Britain, Austria, United Provinces, Prussia, Savoy, and Portugal, who did not want to increase the dominance of the Bourbons in Spain.
- A civil war: The Spanish crown supported Philip of Anjou, and the crown of Aragon supported Archduke Charles.
The war ended with the Treaty of Utrecht. Philip of Anjou was recognized as king of Spain. Great Britain won Spanish territories and colonial concessions in America. Austria received the Spanish Netherlands and territories Spain possessed in Italy, except Sicily, which was ceded to the Duke of Savoy.
Enlightened Despotism in Spain
- Foreign Policy: Spain allied with France. It participated in the War of Austrian Succession, the Seven Years’ War, and supported the 13 American colonies against Great Britain.
- Policy and Administration: The New Plant decrees were promulgated.
The office of clerks was created, a mayor was established, the courts of the Crown of Aragon were eliminated, and the Parliament of the kingdom was established.
Political Problems in Spain
- Domestic Policy: The Esquilache riot broke out. The mutineers demanded the king’s dismissal of foreign ministers and a reduction in food prices. The king had to yield to these demands.
- Foreign Policy: Carlos III supported the revolt of British North America against Great Britain. This support would turn against Spain, as in Spanish America, the idea of independence began to emerge, following the example of the United States of America, independent since 1776.
Item 3. Economic and Social Change
In the second half of the eighteenth century, the Industrial Revolution began, which profoundly transformed the existing social and economic relations in Western Europe. In the economic sphere of the Industrial Revolution, there are two phases:
- During the first phase, the first changes occurred with the use of new energy sources, machinery, and the concentration of workers in factories. The development of workers resulted in a better distribution of raw materials and manufactured goods.
- In the second phase, the Industrial Revolution spread to other European countries, the USA, and Japan. Using new forms of corporate finance, many inventions were developed, and electricity was applied.
- Social classes replaced the estates. The bourgeoisie and industrial workers, or proletarians, stood out, who were paid a salary for their work.
First Industries and the “Revolution of Steam”
The Textile Industry
The technical innovations were constant and allowed the mechanization of spinning and weaving.
The new organization of work was the transformation of the manufacturing industry.
The Steel Industry
It was transformed by coal and the use of blast furnaces. The steel industry provided machinery and tools for agriculture, industry, and transport.The Steam Engine
Devised by James Watt, it was the invention of the early highlights of the Industrial Revolution. It was used in the textile, mining, and steel industries. It was then used in steamships and, above all, on the railroad.
Working Conditions and the Labor Movement
Very long working hours, lack of security and hygiene at work, child labor, low wages, free dismissal, no holidays or social security for workers, and prohibition of association.
Labor Movement
The labor movement made great strides by developing new forms of struggle, the emergence of capitalist-leaning ideologies, and new forms of labor organization. Highlights included:
The progress of trade unionism, the use of the general strike, and the emergence and spread of two revolutionary ideologies: Marxism and anarchism.
Marxism
It is a political and economic theory based on the thinking of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels and developed in Capital.
Marxist ideology advocated a change in the economic, social, and political spheres through class struggle. The working class had to confront the bourgeoisie to achieve its disappearance and seize power to establish the dictatorship of the proletariat. Then, they would undo the capitalist system, and the collectivization of the means of production would lead to a classless society.