18th Century Europe: Enlightenment, Reforms, and Revolution
18th Century Europe: Enlightenment and Reform
Enlightened Despotism
A predominant form of government in the mid-18th century, enlightened despotism saw absolute monarchs implement reforms influenced by Enlightenment ideals. Key examples include:
- Prussia: Frederick II focused on increasing the population and wealth of the country.
- Austria: Joseph II aimed to improve living standards.
- Russia: Catherine II the Great sought to improve the lives of the people and develop institutions.
- France: Louis XV and Louis XVI, however, led the country into economic disaster.
- Great Britain: Maintained a parliamentary monarchy with political parties.
Spain in the 18th Century
In 1700, the death of Charles II, the last Habsburg king, triggered the War of the Spanish Succession (1700-1714). The Peace of Utrecht (1713) saw Philip of Anjou, a Bourbon, crowned King Philip V of Spain. Bourbon reforms included:
- Centralized administration
- Secretaries of State
- Nueva Planta decrees (abolishing regional privileges)
- Salic Law (regulating succession to the throne)
- Family Pact with France
Reign of Carlos III (1759-1788)
Carlos III, an enlightened monarch, implemented significant reforms, including:
- Regalista policy asserting royal authority over the Church
- Expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767
- Embellishment of Madrid (Puerta de Alcalá, Cibeles, Neptune fountains)
- Municipal reforms
- Support for the independence of the American colonies, leading to conflict with England and the recovery of Menorca
- Expansion of Spanish trade
Reign of Carlos IV (1788-1808)
Carlos IV’s reign marked a decline, with governance largely entrusted to Manuel Godoy. French influence increased, leading to the Mutiny of Aranjuez and Napoleon’s intervention. The Spanish monarchy was forced to abdicate, and Napoleon installed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as king. This triggered the War of Independence in 1808.
Economy and Society
Agriculture and livestock maintained traditional structures, while guilds continued to influence industry. Internal trade was revitalized, and customs barriers were reduced. Population growth was fueled by improved food supplies and reduced disease. Sanitation improved in cities.
Castilla-La Mancha
The region was largely unaffected by the War of Succession. The Bourbon administration established four intendencias (administrative divisions). Population increased, and new industries developed in Brihuega, Guadalajara, San Fernando, and Talavera. Mining expanded in Almadén and Puertollano, and a trade fair was established in Albacete.
18th Century Art
Rococo and Neoclassicism
Paris became the artistic capital. Rococo architecture, paralleling the Spanish Churrigueresque style, emphasized ornamentation. Notable works include the Royal Palace of Madrid (Sacchetti and Sabatini), the facade of Pamplona Cathedral (Ventura Rodríguez), Puerta de Alcalá (Sabatini), and the Prado Museum and Royal Observatory of Madrid (Juan de Villanueva).
Neoclassicism, inspired by classical Greece and Rome, emerged as a reaction against Rococo. This style reflected Enlightenment ideals of order and reason.
Francisco Goya (1746-1828)
Born in Fuendetodos (Zaragoza), Goya was a prominent painter known for his insightful and often satirical portrayals of Spanish society. He studied under José Luzán in Zaragoza and later with the Bayeu brothers in Madrid. His career can be divided into distinct periods, reflecting evolving styles and themes.
Early works: Frescoes in the Cartuja de Aula Dei (Zaragoza), the Basilica del Pilar (Zaragoza), and paintings like The Meadow of San Isidro (1788).
Later works: The Family of Carlos IV (1800-1801), The Naked Maja and The Clothed Maja (1803), The Second of May 1808 (1814), The Third of May 1808 (1814), The Disasters of War series, and the Black Paintings.
The Enlightenment
The 18th century, known as the Age of Enlightenment, marked a shift towards reason, scientific inquiry, and individual liberty. Key concepts included:
- Emphasis on reason and scientific method
- Belief in human progress
- Focus on natural rights
A key work of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie by Diderot and d’Alembert.
Enlightened Despotism
Enlightened despots attempted to reconcile absolute rule with Enlightenment principles. Reforms included more equitable taxation, administrative improvements, expanded education, and reduced Church power. However, these reforms were often limited and did not fundamentally challenge the existing social order.
Economic Thought
Physiocrat economists emphasized the importance of land and agriculture, while liberal thinkers advocated for free markets and industrial development.
Key Concepts
- Enlightenment: A philosophical and intellectual movement emphasizing reason, individualism, and human rights.
- Jurisdiction: Laws granted by kings to specific territories during the Reconquista.
- Sovereignty: The ultimate political authority, often attributed to the people.
- Guild: An association of craftspeople or merchants.