18th Century Europe: Demographics, Economy, and Society
18th Century Europe: A Transformation
The eighteenth century can be divided chronologically into two halves. From 1750, when Kant was reaching maturity, the rate of all phenomena seemed to initiate profound transformations that changed the landscape of Europe. In terms of population, while the seventeenth century saw decline or stagnation, the eighteenth century experienced a demographic revolution, especially after 1750. The population grew from 100-120 million in 1700 to 180-190 million.
Economic Landscape
The economy remained largely agrarian, with approximately 80% of the population living in rural areas. However, some regions in France, Great Britain, Holland, and the Po Valley experienced an agrarian revolution, characterized by crop rotation and improved tools. The industrial revolution, though still in its early stages, began in Britain around 1700. However, industry was still secondary to agriculture, and had not yet significantly impacted urban areas. Most states were on the verge of bankruptcy due to continuous wars, rising prices, and increased taxes.
Dominant Economic Theories
Two dominant economic theories emerged:
- French Physiocrats (Quesnay): They believed that land was the main source of wealth and that agriculture was the only productive activity. Industry and commerce were considered sterile. This doctrine supported French landowners and advocated for economic liberalism, where the state should not intervene in the economy, as it is governed by natural laws.
- British Economic Liberalism (Adam Smith): They considered labor and land as the origin of wealth. The state should only intervene to ensure order and justice, without interfering with economic laws. The free play of selfish interests, guided by the ‘hidden hand of providence,’ would regulate the market through supply and demand.
Social Structure and Crisis
The social structure of the Ancien Régime was in crisis. Society was still divided into three orders: nobility, clergy, and the third estate. The aristocracy and high clergy monopolized major state offices. The wealthy bourgeoisie sought to enter the privileged estates by buying titles, aiming for tax privileges and legal advantages. This situation led to a crisis, as the absolutism of kings took power from the aristocracy, and industry created wealth not based on land. Despite the aristocracy’s attempts to maintain their privileges, the bourgeoisie eventually triumphed in the nineteenth century.
Political Systems
The most common form of government in this century was the absolute monarchy, which increasingly relied on an extensive bureaucracy. An isolated case was the British parliamentary monarchy. Absolute monarchies also saw the rise of enlightened despotism, with monarchs like Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine II of Russia, and Charles III of Spain attempting to modernize their countries using Enlightenment ideas.
Political and Religious Shifts
Significant political events included the U.S. independence (1776), the proclamation of the first Constitution (1787), and the French Revolution (1789). In religious matters, the period was relatively calmer, with fewer theological wars and persecutions. The Papacy lost influence, and churches increasingly came under the dominion of monarchs. Religious tolerance gained ground, as did deism among the learned.
The Enlightenment
Culturally, the period is known as the Enlightenment or Age of Reason. It was characterized by the belief that reason and science would illuminate humanity. This new culture originated in England and spread across Europe, particularly through France. Enlightenment thinkers, writers, and intellectuals criticized and analyzed everything in the light of reason. Figures like Kant, Smith, Goethe, Diderot, and Voltaire attacked bigotry, superstition, and political, social, and intellectual dogma. They believed in the progress of humanity through the use of reason, which should not be limited by experience.