17th Century Thought, Science, and Baroque Art
The New Thinking: 17th Century Philosophy
In the seventeenth century, two major philosophical currents developed:
Empiricism: Francis Bacon and Experience
Empiricism originated in England. Its theoretical foundations appeared in the work of Francis Bacon, notably in Novum Organum. Bacon believed that scientists and philosophers should be skeptical and not take any knowledge for granted. Therefore, arguments that could not be proven by the scientific method—through observation and experimentation—should not be accepted. He asserted that knowledge is the fruit of experience.
Rationalism: René Descartes and Systematic Doubt
The Rationalist current emerged through the work of the French philosopher René Descartes. He devised the method of systematic doubt, which involved questioning everything to reach rational knowledge. Like Bacon, Descartes believed that critical reflection required doubting all established truths that were unclear. He elevated reason as the sole acceptable criterion for reflection.
Descartes and Bacon: A Comparison
Descartes and Bacon differed primarily in their emphasis:
- The English (Bacon) placed great emphasis on experimentation.
- The French (Descartes) remained at a more theoretical level.
Both thinkers exemplified the critical and rational spirit that arose from Humanism and the Renaissance.
The Scientific Revolution of the Baroque Era
Scientific advances built upon those that occurred in the sixteenth century and were enriched by the reflections of philosophers like Bacon and Descartes. Notably, scientific discoveries often occurred without the support of universities or the Catholic Church. The largest gains occurred in the following fields:
Advances in Astronomy
- Galileo Galilei confirmed the heliocentric theory of Copernicus.
- Johannes Kepler completed Galileo’s work, establishing that the orbital motion of the planets describes ellipses, not circles, as previously believed.
- Edmond Halley studied the motion of stars and comets.
Physics, Chemistry, and Medicine
Physics was born in this century, primarily through the work of Isaac Newton, who discovered:
- The principle of the decomposition of light.
- The Laws of Universal Gravitation. These laws explained that bodies are attracted to each other due to their mass. They also explained why planets orbit without clashing, noting that the attraction they exert is limited by the great distance separating them.
Other significant scientific contributions include:
- In Chemistry, Robert Boyle developed basic principles.
- In Medicine, William Harvey demonstrated the operation of the general mechanism of blood circulation, previously described by Servetus.
Characteristics of Baroque Art
Baroque art was heavily influenced by religious and political constraints:
- Religious Influence: It served as propaganda for the Catholic Church and the Counter-Reformation.
- Political Influence: Absolute monarchies used artistic expression to showcase their prestige and power.
The term “Baroque” was later used in the eighteenth century to describe the exaggerated and extravagant features characteristic of this art form.
Baroque Architecture in Europe
Baroque architecture focused on large urban projects designed to draw all attention to the central, presiding structure. These projects frequently incorporated sculptures and fountains.
Piazza Navona, Rome
Examples include Rome’s Piazza Navona and the colonnade of St. Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican, designed by Bernini. The planning involved large urban projects, often featuring a facade with a fountain.
San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, Borromini
Architectural plans featured centralized forms using curved lines. Typical floor plans were circular and elliptical. There was a dominance of curved lines, creating inward and outward movement on the walls for greater visual plasticity. While classical decorative elements were used, they were interpreted more freely. Gables were often curved and split apart, emphasizing the facade closely.
Residenz Palace, Würzburg
The Residenz Palace in Würzburg is another key example of Baroque architecture.