17th-Century Habsburg Spain: Decline and Internal Conflicts
The Seventeenth-Century Habsburgs: Government and Internal Conflicts
The Austrian Habsburg monarchs of the seventeenth century (Philip III, Philip IV, and Charles II) are known for their political struggles. Their reigns coincided with a period of demographic, economic, and political crisis, contributing to the decline of the Spanish monarchy’s power and European hegemony.
The Habsburgs ruled through validos, trusted individuals to whom they delegated major government decisions. This practice, similar to other European kingdoms, arose not only from the monarchs’ disinterest in power but also from the increasing complexity of governance and administration.
The valido was not an official position but a trust-based appointment from the king, typically to a member of the aristocracy.
Key Figures and Reigns:
- Reign of Philip III (1598-1621): The Duke of Lerma, Philip III’s favorite for much of his reign, amassed significant power and wealth but was embroiled in corruption scandals, leading to his retirement in 1618. His son, the Duke of Uceda, succeeded him but did not wield the same absolute authority.
- Reign of Philip IV (1621-1665): The Count-Duke of Olivares, the most renowned valido, was a skilled politician whose attempts to restore Spain’s hegemony and prestige coincided with significant crop failures and growing unpopularity in various realms. He was succeeded in 1643 by his cousin and political rival, the Duke de Haro.
- Reign of Charles II (1665-1700): Charles II’s incapacities led to a succession of validos, including Father Nithard, Fernando Valenzuela, and Juan José de Austria.
The seventeenth century marked a period of decline for the Spanish monarchy, losing its European leadership and experiencing a deep internal crisis.
Key Conflicts and Events:
- Reign of Philip III (1598-1621): The expulsion of the Moriscos (1609-1610) stands out. Accused of practicing Islam, maintaining their customs, and possibly aiding Turkish pirates, around 300,000 Moriscos were forcibly expelled from Castile, Aragon, and Valencia. This resulted in population decline and an agricultural and artisanal crisis, particularly in Aragon and Valencia. The local nobility received the Moriscos’ properties as compensation.
- Reign of Philip IV (1621-1665): The Count-Duke of Olivares implemented reforms to bolster the monarchy’s resources, aiming to apply Castile’s model across all kingdoms (Greater Memorial, 1624). His administrative, fiscal, and military reforms (Union of Arms, 1626), intended to ensure equal contribution from all realms, clashed with their rights and interests, leading to widespread rejection and culminating in the Crisis of 1640 with rebellions in Catalonia and Portugal.
- Reign of Charles II (1665-1700): The king’s physical and mental weakness fueled internal power struggles, particularly during his mother Mariana of Austria’s regency, between Father Nithard, Fernando Valenzuela, and Juan José de Austria. From 1680, the Duke of Medinaceli and the Count of Oropesa brought a period of relative calm, stabilizing finances and currency. Social protests, particularly among peasants facing hardship, also marked this reign. The lack of direct heirs led to succession issues, culminating in the War of the Spanish Succession in the early eighteenth century.
The Crisis of 1640
During Philip IV’s reign (1621-1665), the Count-Duke of Olivares initiated reforms to strengthen royal authority, unify the kingdoms, and increase their fiscal contributions. He also implemented the Union of Armas (1626), requiring all territories to contribute equally to maintain a strong army.
The Crown of Aragon, particularly Catalonia, opposed the Union of Armas. In 1640, a major revolt erupted in Catalonia due to:
- Forced recruitment for the Thirty Years’ War.
- Poor performance of royal troops on the French-Catalan border.
- The economic crisis in Catalonia.
The popular uprising in Barcelona, marked by the reapers, resulted in the viceroy’s death and the flight of royal authorities. This event is known as the Corpus de Sang (June 1640). The rebels sought French sovereignty and military aid. The rebellion lasted until 1652, when Louis XIII proved even less respectful of Catalan laws, treating Catalonia as an economic and military outpost. The ravages of war and plague led to Barcelona’s surrender and a negotiated settlement: revolutionaries were pardoned, and Catalan law remained, contributing to pacification.
In 1640, another rebellion led to Portugal’s independence. Portugal also opposed the Union of Armas and new taxes. Resentment over the Dutch invasion of their Southeast Asian colonies without adequate response further fueled the uprising, which was supported by the Portuguese Church. The Duke of Braganza was proclaimed king. Philip IV, engaged in multiple conflicts (Thirty Years’ War, Catalan rebellion), could not prevent Portugal’s independence.
In the 1640s, conflicts arose in Naples and Sicily for similar reasons (tax burdens, Union of Armas), leading to the abolition of new taxes and the replacement of the viceroy.
These internal problems and external defeats led Philip IV to dismiss Olivares in 1643 and appoint Luis de Haro, though the king later took direct control of government.