17th Century Europe: War, Peace, and the Rise of New Powers

Posted on Aug 18, 2024 in History

1. The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648)

Between 1618 and 1648, Europe was engaged in a lengthy conflict known as the Thirty Years’ War. This war stemmed from religious tensions between the Habsburgs (ruling Spain and the Holy Roman Empire) and the German Protestant Princes.

The conflict began when Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II of Bohemia attempted to restrict the religious activities of his subjects, leading to a Protestant rebellion. Ferdinand II sought assistance from his nephew, the Spanish Monarch Phillip III.

In the second phase of the war, Denmark (a Lutheran Kingdom) allied with Anglican England and the Calvinist Netherlands to confront the German and Spanish Habsburgs. However, the Danish troops were defeated by the imperial armies in 1629.

During the third phase, Sweden, another Lutheran Kingdom, took over from Denmark, and the war continued until 1635 when the Treaty of Prague was signed. However, the lack of a clear victor led to the continuation of the war.

In the final phase, France, a Catholic State, saw an opportunity to challenge Spain’s power and aligned itself with the Protestant states of England, the Netherlands, and Sweden, declaring war on Spain. The Spanish and German imperial armies were defeated by the French coalition, and in 1648, negotiations resulted in the Peace of Westphalia, ending the war.

The war involved major European powers, with Sweden, France, Spain, and Austria all waging campaigns primarily on German soil. Known in part for the atrocities committed by mercenary soldiers, the war ended with a series of treaties that made up the Peace of Westphalia. The fallout reshaped the religious and political map of central Europe, setting the stage for the old centralized Roman Catholic empire to give way to a community of sovereign states.

The war’s cost was enormous. Approximately 20 percent of Germany’s total population perished, with losses of up to 50 percent along a corridor running from Pomerania in the Baltic to the Black Forest. Villages suffered worse than towns, but many towns and cities also saw their populations, manufacture, and trade decline substantially. It constituted the worst catastrophe to afflict Germany until World War II.

However, the conflict helped to end the age of religious wars. Although religious issues retained political importance after 1648, they no longer dominated international alignments.

2. The Peace of Westphalia (1648)

The Peace of Westphalia was a series of peace treaties signed between May and October 1648 in the Westphalian cities of Osnabrück and Münster, effectively ending the European wars of religion.

These treaties ended the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648) in the Holy Roman Empire and the Eighty Years’ War (1568–1648) between Spain and the Dutch Republic, with Spain formally recognizing the independence of the Dutch Republic (The United Provinces).

Main Consequences of the Treaty of Westphalia:

• Recognition of the Peace of Augsburg of 1555, granting each prince the right to determine the religion of his own state (Catholicism, Lutheranism, or Calvinism).
• General recognition of the separation of States Sovereignty.
• Reorganization of the European Political map with the independence of Switzerland and the Netherlands. German States also gained autonomy from imperial power. France acquired most of Alsace-Lorraine.
• France’s rise to European hegemony and the strengthening of England and Sweden’s positions. Spain became a secondary power.
• The linking of Absolute Monarchies to the idea of Nation-States.

3. The 17th Century: An Introduction

The 17th century was a challenging period for Europe, marked by a serious population and economic crisis. Despite this, significant changes took place, including the emergence of new economic powers and the development of colonial trade.

Spain declined while France rose to become the greatest power in Europe. Strong centralized European states entered into worldwide international competition for wealth and power, accelerating colonization in America and Asia.

European powers struggled to maintain and extend colonies and trading-posts, leading to profound and permanent global consequences. They also fought one another in Europe, where warfare grew increasingly complex and expensive.

To gain an edge in war, European governments invested in military technology research, resulting in a military revolution that enabled Europeans to defeat most non-European peoples in battle.

Serious political conflicts arose between absolute monarchies, and religious confrontations continued between Catholics and Protestants. However, changes in England and the Netherlands limited the power of monarchies and established parliamentary systems.

The Thirty Years’ War ravaged Europe, but its end and the Peace of Westphalia initiated a new era of relations and religious tolerance.

In Catholic Europe, traditional society remained relatively unchanged. However, in Protestant countries, a bourgeoisie emerged and began imposing its values and tastes.

In the fields of science, scientists and philosophers challenged traditional beliefs and argued that experimentation was the only true basis of knowledge. The 1600s saw the founding of modern science by Galileo and Newton, the beginning of modern philosophy by Descartes, the initiation of international law by Hugo Grotius, and the start of modern political theory by Thomas Hobbes and John Locke.

Culture and art reflected the controversies of the time. The Baroque established new aesthetic values used as propaganda for both the Catholic Church and the Absolute Monarchies. In contrast, Protestant and bourgeois Europe developed a different aesthetic and addressed new subjects: portraits, domestic settings, landscapes, and still life compositions (bodegón) that represented everyday life or depicted the economic power of the merchant bourgeoisie.

4. Economy

4.1. The General Crisis

The 17th century was a period of economic difficulty and crisis throughout Europe. The causes of this crisis can be found in the following events:

• A series of bad harvests due to a fall in temperatures (Little Ice Age and Maunder Minimum).
• Traditional methods of agriculture were unable to increase production.
• The Price Revolution in Spain, fueled by imports and the flow of precious metals from the Americas.
• The stagnation of Europe’s population.
• The growth of the Atlantic Trade led to a fall in the Mediterranean and Baltic trade.

Only some countries, like England and The Netherlands, began to introduce changes to agriculture and developed their trade, creating Trading Companies to obtain products from America and Asia.

5. Science and Art

5.1. Science

Building upon the work of the Humanists during the 16th century, 17th-century scientists founded the key principles of modern science, Empiricism and Rationalism, which led to the development of the scientific method.

The science of the 17th century brought revolution in three areas: the explanation of the Universe and Nature, the concept of Science, and Scientific research methods. However, Scientists had to overcome opposition from the Catholic Church, since many of these theories challenged religious beliefs and the Bible teachings.

5.2. Art – The Baroque

Baroque was an artistic style that developed in Europe and Latin America during the 17th century and part of the 18th century.

The Baroque opposed the equilibrium, symmetry, and rationalism of the Renaissance, establishing new aesthetic values:

• Emphasis on motion and complexity through the use of curved, concave, and convex shapes.
• Shapes were created through light and color rather than drawing.
• Realism was used to heighten emotions and move or surprise the viewer.
• The use of drama and symbolism. Artworks were often presented as theatrical backdrops to draw onlookers into the world of feelings and sensations.
• Churches were extravagantly decorated and represented the gateway to heaven. The decoration was meant to stimulate faith and piety.

Baroque Architecture

The main feature of Baroque Architecture was the desire to incorporate a sense of movement into the designs of new buildings:

• The most common constructions were churches and palaces.
• Architects designed curved cornices and split/broken pediments, creating effects of light and shade.
• The floor designs incorporated oval and elliptical shapes.
• The interiors were elaborately decorated, including Solomonic columns that featured a twisted shaft.
• The churches included impressive domes decorated with frescoes.
• Gian Lorenzo Bernini and Francesco Borromini turned Rome into the capital of Baroque architecture, designing churches, squares, and fountains that transformed the city.

6. Society

In the 17th century, the population of Europe stopped growing and even fell due to wars, famine, and the biggest plague of Black Death since the 14th century. The Great Plague of London (1664-1667) killed between 70,000 to 100,000 people.

European Society had the following main characteristics:

• The agricultural crisis caused a fall in the Lords’ (nobles) income, leading to peasant revolts.
• In Spain, there was no rise of the bourgeoisie, and many members of the low nobility (Hidalgos) lived on the edge of poverty.
• The members of the Clergy increased.
• The High Bourgeoisie, especially bankers, gained more influence.
• The Petite Bourgeoisie received education in Universities and many worked as Civil Servants.
• Guilds continued to be the predominant organization in manufacture production, but the appearance of the “Domestic System” in rural areas introduced changes that led to proto-industrialization.
• The economic situation of the peasants worsened.

7. Absolute Monarchy v. Parliamentary Monarchy

Absolute Monarchy was the dominant political system in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries. Kings believed their authority was divinely ordained and held all power (sovereignty) without limitations.

However, England and The Netherlands limited the authority of their monarchs by strengthening the power of their parliaments.