17th & 18th Century Philosophers: Hume, Descartes & More
17th & 18th Century Philosophers: Hume and Descartes
Hume and the Enlightenment
The historical context surrounding David Hume (1711-1776) is the 18th century, a period known as the Enlightenment. This era spanned the entire century, particularly from the 1688 Glorious Revolution in England until the French Revolution in 1789, though its development varied across different countries. The mid-18th century was relatively calm, preceded by religious wars and followed by revolutionary ones (American Revolution in 1776 and French Revolution in 1789).
Politically, the dominant form of government was absolute monarchy, often disguised as enlightened despotism, operating under the motto “all for the people but without the people.” However, new political ideas arose during the English Enlightenment (1688), such as parliamentary systems and the separation of powers. These ideas spread throughout Europe, influencing the American Revolution (1776) and the French Revolution (1789). Absolutism and feudal society were gradually dismantled by the revolutionary spirit. This movement culminated in France under the Napoleonic Empire and extended across Europe during the 19th century, ending the old regime and leading to the triumph of parliamentary democracies.
Socio-culturally, a population increase occurred in mid-18th century Europe due to relative peace, improved economic conditions, advancements in agriculture, and the beginnings of the First Industrial Revolution (1750-1840). This impacted the existing social structure. The old structure of absolutism with its estates (favoring nobility and clergy over the bourgeoisie, artisans, and peasants (Third Estate)) was destined to disappear. The middle class gained economic power and demanded political rights.
Philosophically, the Enlightenment saw philosophy play a crucial role in unifying and substantiating efforts towards individual emancipation based on autonomous reason and critique. The century began with Hume’s empiricism, offering a new understanding of enlightened reason that opposed rationalism (Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz). Hume emphasized the importance of experience in shaping reason. Simultaneously, Jean-Jacques Rousseau emerged as a key figure in moral and political philosophy, considered by Kant as the “Newton of morals.” These and other lines of thought culminated in the work of Immanuel Kant, who synthesized and transcended them. Kant’s primary aim was to answer the question “what is man?” This involved developing a theory of knowledge based on Newtonian science, combining the best of rationalism and empiricism and overcoming their limitations (dogmatism and skepticism). Answering “what can I know?” was a stepping stone to addressing “what should I do?” and “what can I hope for?”
Descartes and the 17th Century
By the mid-16th century, Europe experienced a series of crises (changes) that continued throughout the 17th century. Socially, this corresponded with the rise of the bourgeoisie and the need for a new worldview based on reason. It’s important to examine the characteristics and constraints of this period (17th and 18th centuries), the centuries of English rationalism and empiricism.
We can divide these constraints into two categories:
- Socio-economic constraints
- Philosophical constraints
During these centuries, capitalism, which began in the 15th and 16th centuries, intensified, leading to wealth accumulation in the hands of a few and an increase in the number of the dispossessed. This strengthening occurred primarily in cities, leading to uprisings among peasants and artisans. The bourgeoisie and the monarchy united against the medieval nobility, who opposed the prevailing “absolute” monarchies. To weaken the feudal nobility, the development of industry and trade was encouraged, benefiting the active and enterprising middle class. Their wealth grew, and capitalism flourished.
Capitalism’s development in this century was particularly fueled by the expansion of maritime trade and colonialism, along with the influx of precious metals from European and American mines. This caused a rapid rise in prices in the second half of the 16th century and a slower rise in the first half of the next century, until 1640-1650. Initially, it was primarily commercial capitalism. Businessmen were also bankers and founders of new industries. Stock exchanges and large commercial companies emerged in the form of joint-stock companies. Industrial capitalism emerged in England in the first half of the 17th century as a result of the first industrial revolution, a precursor to the major industrial revolution of the 18th century.
Numerous inventions were made in maritime navigation, industry, and agriculture. The energetic, intelligent, and practical capitalist entrepreneur emerged, demanding individual freedom against corporations, municipalities, and dominions, and even against religious and moral conceptions. They exalted the value of reason against the authority of books and teachers and encouraged scientific inquiry.
The bourgeoisie grew in number and importance, becoming a serious opponent of the nobility. The price hike favored them over other social groups: nobles, craftsmen, and farmers. The upper bourgeoisie acquired estates and public offices, competing with the old nobility. However, their overall ideal was to adopt the lifestyle of the nobility. This lack of “class consciousness” made the bourgeoisie a factor of evolution in Europe. They were linked to the monarchy (absolute monarchy) with whom they shared common interests, as only merchants could provide the treasury with the funds needed to pay civil servants and finance wars. They also exploited state property like salt mines. England and Holland were exceptions, where the bourgeoisie’s numerical importance (and in England’s case, because the nobility was also involved in business) made them a revolutionary factor.
Politically, it was a period of great instability and crisis, manifested in wars and revolutions. It was the time of colonial expansionism, leading European states to fight at sea. The Thirty Years’ War unfolded on the European continent. This is the period in which the “Modern State” formed. There were also conflicts between Catholics and Protestants.