16th Century Society, Economy, and Demographics
16th Century Society and Economy
16th Century Demographics
Positive aspects: Abundant demographic sources were available, used by the state for purposes such as identifying taxpayers, controlling local resources, or managing the army and population.
Organizational precision: Church parish censuses were considered more reliable for smaller areas.
Census Data and Challenges
Several complete censuses were conducted in 16th-century Spain (1528-30, 1591). France and England also had censuses, for example: France (1538, 1547, 1559, 1597).
A challenge was that censuses often counted ‘fires’ (households) rather than individuals.
Population Dynamics
Significant population growth occurred following the decline caused by the Black Death and other epidemics in the preceding centuries.
Reactions to epidemics included nobles leaving cities. Beliefs often attributed epidemics to God’s punishment for bad behavior.
Population regulation factors included war and epidemics. Conversely, average life expectancy saw increases due to advances in hygiene and improved nutrition.
Infant mortality in the first year was very high (around 50%). High parity (many births) among women was common. Children were expected to care for adults. The practice of infanticide existed. Beliefs included ideas about essences and eternal life.
Causes of death included starvation, unbalanced diet, hemorrhoids, and gout. Phenomena like necrophagy and cannibalism were reported (e.g., in Ireland, Russia, India). Major epidemics occurred, such as plague, influenza, and smallpox between 1501 and 1507.
Population growth was influenced by factors like favorable weather (e.g., growth 1550-56) and periods of decline (e.g., 1580-1620).
Population Distribution
Most populous countries included France and Germany. Densely populated areas with fertile lands and textile industries were found in Flanders, Switzerland, and Italy, reaching densities around 40 persons per square kilometer.
Major cities included Constantinople, Naples, Venice, Milan, and Antwerp.
16th Century Social Organization
Social hierarchy was imposed by the monarchy, expected to respect natural laws and Church teachings. Great inequalities existed. Revolution was forbidden, seen as violating divine law. Social ascent was possible through money and culture.
Hierarchy and Mobility
Key strata included:
- The nobility: Holding political and social privileges, large landownership, and rents (both titled and untitled).
- The gentry (Western Europe): Held dominion over land, collecting rents, taxes, and exercising feudal rights.
The Peasantry
- Western Europe: Often independent farmers.
- Eastern Europe: Typically bound to the land (serfdom).
16th Century Urban Development
Urban centers typically had 30-40 thousand inhabitants. They hosted diverse activities distinct from rural life. Characteristics included higher literacy rates (perhaps around 65% in some areas) and prominent market functions.
The peace and power of the monarchy meant they were less often ‘city-fortresses’. Inhabitants pursued professional occupations. Religious brotherhoods provided assistance and charity. Charitable activities were common, largely organized by the Church.
16th Century Economic Changes
Inflation and Precious Metals
The second half of the 16th century saw social transformation, partly fueled by the influx of precious metals (from the Americas). This led to inflationary pressures, making goods, especially those in short supply, more expensive.
Economic Structure and Trends
While religion and politics previously justified war, economic motives became increasingly significant. A new form of nobility emerged, often comprising jurists with significant social prestige.
Society was organized into guilds. The economic structure was increasingly shaped by commercialism. Agriculture was stimulated by population growth. The presence of blast furnaces indicated industrial concentration.
Trade patterns shifted towards Atlantic ports like Seville. Waterways were important for transport. Numerous trade fairs were held. Tensions existed between the rich and the poor.