14th-15th Century Iberian Political & Social Upheaval
Castilian Political Institutions (14th-15th Centuries)
The Castilian crown strengthened in the 14th and 15th centuries, with the king defending absolute supremacy. This doctrine asserted the king as ruler of subjects, subordinated to the monarch’s unlimited authority and responsible only to God. The strength of the Castilian monarchy manifested in several ways:
At the State Level:
- Castile and its territories merged, leading to the emergence of royal institutions.
- The Royal Council (1385), heir to the royal curia, advised the king.
- The Court (1372), the supreme organ of justice, was initially roaming but settled in Valladolid in the 15th century.
At the Local Level:
- The monarchy increased its control over municipalities.
- During the reign of Alfonso XI, councils were replaced by smaller governing bodies.
- Mayors, officials sent by the king, became the main instrument of control, representing the crown by the late 15th century.
Aragonese Political Institutions
Aragon differed from Castile. It was a confederation of territories with their own laws, where the ruler-ruled relationship remained based on a feudal pact. Aragonese pactism originated during Peter III’s reign. Facing opposition from France and the Pope over the conquest of Sicily, the monarch needed military and economic aid. He granted the nobility’s demands (General Privilege), agreeing to seek consent from the Cortes, thus limiting royal authority.
The most important Aragonese institutions emerged over the centuries:
- Viceroyalties: Viceroys acted on behalf of the monarch in territories where they didn’t reside.
- Cortes: These assemblies limited the king’s authority and defended the interests of social forces like the nobility and clergy.
- Provincial Councils: Initially commissions to manage royal subsidies granted by the Cortes, these evolved into councils in different realms: Catalonia (1359), Aragon (1412), and Valencia (1419).
- Justice of Aragon: An elected body of nobles defending Aragonese privileges.
Municipalities in Aragon were under the control of urban oligarchies. Municipal government consisted of:
- Delegate (function unclear)
- Judges (executive function)
- Assembly (advisory body)
Demographic and Economic Crisis
Medieval Europe experienced a crisis marked by a lower mean age. The 14th century saw consecutive years of agrarian crisis due to storage and transportation difficulties. Poor harvests across Europe, caused by adverse weather, led to soaring prices, famine, and disease.
The Black Death (1348):
This rodent-borne disease, transmitted by rat fleas, originated in Asia and spread through Europe via the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. Reaching Spain in 1348 via Mallorca, it returned in 1350. Explanations ranged from divine punishment to witchcraft. The plague even claimed King Alfonso XI in 1350. The demographic effects included population movements from rural areas to cities and widespread depopulation. Economically, prices and wages increased. The plague also had a profound psychological impact.
Seigneurial Reaction and Social Tensions:
The crisis affected the nobility, who faced reduced income due to fewer subjects and rising prices. Lords attempted to enrich themselves, sometimes usurping lands and exploiting the situation during civil wars. Labor conditions for peasants worsened, leading to social tensions.
Widespread discontent manifested in various conflicts:
- Peasant rebellions against seigneurial abuses.
- Confrontations within cities between the people and the oligarchy.
- Gang rivalries among the local nobility.
- Pogroms against Jews.
Political Crisis and Civil Wars:
The strengthening of royal power led to conflicts with the nobility and clergy, who sought to increase their own influence. This resulted in civil wars, notably in Castile (1366-1369 and 1474-1479), Navarre (1451-1461), and Catalonia (1462-1472).
Mediterranean Expansion
The Aragonese crown, encompassing Aragon, Catalonia, Mallorca, and Valencia, had a strong Mediterranean presence, fostering a commercial vocation. From the 13th to the mid-15th century, monarchs pursued expansionist policies in the Mediterranean, facing opposition from France and the papacy. They incorporated territories like Sicily (1282), Sardinia (1324), and even Naples (1443). Catalan mercenaries briefly conquered Athens and Neopatria (1379). This expansion fueled international trade, with Barcelona exporting iron and textiles and importing cereals (Sardinia) and leather. Catalan trade peaked in the 14th century but later experienced a crisis.