The Rise of Scholasticism: A Journey Through Medieval Philosophy and Theology
The Rise of Scholasticism
II. The Scholastics
From the 11th century onwards, Europe witnessed significant population growth and the rise of industrial cities. This period, often referred to as the Industrial Revolution of the 13th and 14th centuries, was eventually halted by two major forces: the Protestant Reformation and humanism. These movements shifted focus away from empirical science and technology towards the humanities. The Protestant Reformation, in particular, impacted the monasteries and convents, which were key drivers of industrial development during this era.
2.1 Rejection of Philosophy
The 11th century saw the emergence of scholasticism, characterized by a focus on contemplation and a departure from manual labor. Benedictine monks played a crucial role in preserving knowledge through copying books. However, this era also witnessed a rejection of philosophy, with two main schools of thought emerging:
2.1.1 Anti-dialectical and Dialectical
2.1.1.1 Dialectical
The dialectical school, represented by figures like Anselm of Canterbury and Berengar of Tours, emphasized the use of logic and reason in theological discussions. They sought to provide necessary arguments (rationes necessariae) to support their claims. However, this approach faced opposition from the anti-dialectical movement.
2.1.1.2 Anti-dialectical
Prominent anti-dialectical figures, such as Saint Peter Damian and Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, argued against the application of logic to matters of faith. They believed that faith should be based on revelation and religious experience rather than rational arguments.
2.2 Acceptance of Philosophy
2.1 Problems of Universals
The 11th and 12th centuries saw intense debate surrounding the problem of universals. Philosophers like Boethius and Anselm of Canterbury grappled with the question of whether universals (such as “humanity”) exist as real entities or merely as concepts in the mind. This debate had significant implications for theology, particularly in understanding concepts like original sin and the incarnation.
2.2 San Anselmo Cantorbury (1033-1109)
Anselm of Canterbury, a prominent figure in scholasticism, emphasized the harmony between reason and faith. He believed that reason could be used to understand and clarify religious truths. Anselm is best known for his ontological argument for the existence of God, which posits that the very concept of God implies his existence.
2.2.1 Reason and Faith
Anselm argued that faith should precede reason but that reason could then be used to deepen one’s understanding of faith. He believed that reason and faith were complementary and could work together to illuminate theological truths.
2.2.2 Natural Theology
Anselm is considered the father of natural theology, which seeks to understand God through reason and observation of the natural world. He developed several arguments for the existence of God based on the concept of perfection and the nature of being.
III. XII Century
3.1 Major Development. Industrial Revolution.
The 12th century witnessed continued advancements in civilization and culture. The Third Lateran Council in 1179 encouraged the establishment of schools and the pursuit of knowledge. Cities grew, and guilds were formed to regulate trade and ensure quality standards.
3.2 The Dispute about Universals
The debate over universals continued in the 12th century, with figures like William of Champeaux and Peter Abelard offering different perspectives. William of Champeaux initially proposed a realist view, arguing that universals exist as real entities within individuals. However, Abelard criticized this view and argued that universals are mental concepts that arise from our observation of similarities between individuals.
3.3 Strengthening of Theology
Theology continued to develop during this period, with scholars at the Abbey of Saint Victor and the School of Chartres making significant contributions. They emphasized the importance of a broad education, including philosophy, and sought to systematize theological knowledge.
3.4 Systematization of Theology
The 12th century saw the rise of universities and the formalization of theological education. Scholars like Peter Abelard and Peter Lombard developed methods for teaching and discussing theology, including lectures, commentaries, and disputations. These methods helped to systematize theological knowledge and make it more accessible to students.
3.5 The Universities
Universities emerged as centers of learning, with faculties of arts and theology offering structured programs of study. The Faculty of Arts provided a foundation in grammar, rhetoric, and philosophy, while the Faculty of Theology focused on the study of scripture and theological doctrines.
3.6 Greeks, Arabs and Jews
The 12th century also saw a renewed interest in the works of Greek, Arab, and Jewish philosophers. Translations of works by Aristotle, Avicenna, and Maimonides made these texts available to a wider audience and influenced the development of scholastic thought.
IV. XIII Century
4.1 The Holy Inquisition
The 13th century saw the establishment of the Holy Inquisition, a church institution tasked with combating heresy. The Inquisition aimed to protect the Catholic faith and prevent the spread of doctrines deemed heretical. Its methods, which included investigations, trials, and punishments, were often controversial.
4.2 The Rejection of Aristotle
The introduction of Aristotle’s works into Western Europe initially met with resistance from some theologians who saw his ideas as incompatible with Christian doctrine. However, over time, Aristotle’s philosophy became increasingly influential in scholastic thought.
4.3 The Augustinian
The Augustinian school of thought, influenced by the writings of Saint Augustine, emphasized the importance of faith, divine illumination, and the limitations of human reason. Prominent Augustinian thinkers included Saint Bonaventure and Matthew of Aquasparta.
4.3.3 San Buenaventura (1221-1274)
Saint Bonaventure, a Franciscan theologian and philosopher, sought to reconcile the thought of Plato, Aristotle, and Saint Augustine. He emphasized the role of faith in guiding philosophical inquiry and saw philosophy as a means to deepen one’s understanding of God and achieve spiritual enlightenment.
4.3.3.1 Attitude
Bonaventure believed that philosophy should be subservient to theology and that true wisdom could only be attained through divine illumination. He emphasized the importance of prayer, asceticism, and a life of holiness for the pursuit of philosophical and theological knowledge.
4.3.3.2 Itinerarium Mentis in Deum
Bonaventure’s Itinerarium Mentis in Deum (Journey of the Mind to God) outlines a path of spiritual ascent through which the human mind can come to know and love God. This journey involves contemplating the traces of God in the natural world, reflecting on the image of God within the human soul, and ultimately experiencing a mystical union with God.
4.3.3.3 The Transcendental
Bonaventure developed a doctrine of transcendental properties of being, such as truth, goodness, unity, and beauty. He argued that these properties are present in all created things and reflect the perfections of God. By contemplating these transcendental properties, humans can come to a deeper understanding of God’s nature and his relationship to the created world.
4.3.3.4 Metaphysics of Light
Bonaventure’s metaphysics of light draws inspiration from both Saint Augustine and Plotinus. He saw light as a symbol of God and as the foundation of knowledge. Different types of light, such as external light, lower light, interior light, and the light of glory, correspond to different levels of knowledge and understanding.
4.3.3.5 Copies and Creation
Bonaventure explored the relationship between God and creation, drawing on the concept of exemplarism. He argued that God’s ideas serve as archetypes for created things, and that created things are like shadows, footprints, images, and likenesses of God.
4.3.3.6 Anthropology
Bonaventure’s anthropology emphasized the spiritual nature of the human soul and its immortality. He explored the faculties of the soul, including sensation, intellect, and will, and their role in human knowledge and action.
4.3.3.7 Quaestiones disputatae
In his Quaestiones disputatae (Disputed Questions), Bonaventure addressed various philosophical and theological issues, including the temporal beginning of the universe, the nature of the human mind, and the problem of individuation.
4.3.3.8 School
Bonaventure’s thought influenced a generation of Franciscan scholars, including Matthew of Aquasparta, Roger Bacon, Peter John Olivi, and Ramon Llull. These thinkers made significant contributions to various fields, including empirical science, mathematics, and logic.
The rise of scholasticism marked a significant period in the history of Western thought. It witnessed the development of sophisticated philosophical and theological systems, the establishment of universities, and the integration of classical and Christian ideas. Scholastic thinkers grappled with fundamental questions about the nature of reality, knowledge, and God, leaving a lasting legacy on Western intellectual tradition.