Metals, Wood, and Stone: Properties, Applications, and Treatments

Posted on Apr 20, 2024 in Geology

Metals:

• Gangue and ore:

In any mineral can distinguish two parts:

• The Ganga: ferrous substances that are mixed with the mineral and must be removed.
• The Mena: all bodies are combined with the metal.

• Properties of metals:

• Mechanical:
• Strength: tensile, compression, bending and shear.
• Deformability, elasticity, plasticity, etc.
• Tenacity.
• Hardness, from: striped, penetration and cutting
• Weldability.
• Electrical: electrical conductivity.
• Thermal: thermal conductivity, expansion.
• Chemical: Oxidation corrosion (especially external threat).

Essays:

Stress-strain diagram.

Mechanical tests: tensile, bending, twisting, bending, unbending, fatigue and toughness.

• Metal working:

• Wire-drawing a wire stretched by passing it through a matrix to obtain calibration or very small diameter.
• Forge work through a metal blows cold or hot.
• Lamination from parts by special rollers.
• Molding Melting using metal molds, sand, clay, wax, etc.
• Machining: using drills, lathes, mills, milling machines, rectifiers, etc.

• Defects in casting:

• Blowholes, are hollows formed by the loss of air.
• Cracks: Caused by uneven stresses that occur on cooling.
• Stains: are caused by impurities containing iron (color differences).
• Scales: thin surface are produced by rapid cooling.

• Heat treatments:

• Standard: Temp Heating to criticize and let cool.
• Temple:> T ª critical and quenched. Resistance Hardness Toughness
• Annealing Temp close to critical. Cool slowly.
• Temper: after quenching,
• Isothermal:> T ª Criticism and cool quickly.
• Hardening: warm spot in areas where reliable, high-strength material.
• Thermo-chemical treatment: carburizing and nitriding

• CORROSION:

It is the unintentional destruction of a solid body by chemical or electrochemical attack.

Influence of environmental conditions and properties of the metal, and speed up all the factors that influence the reaction rate.

It is produced by the reaction of oxygen and water by contact with iron, giving an exothermic reaction.

Iron oxide, porous layer, slightly sticky and hygroscopic which accelerates the destruction of iron.

Types of corrosion: Chemical (gas-metal reaction) and electrochemical reaction (metal-liquid).

Factors affecting corrosion: metal (with higher internal stresses increased risk of corrosion) and part (a greater surface roughness increased risk of corrosion).

• STAINLESS STEEL (make comparisons and contrast the types of steel)

Works well as a structural element, but has the disadvantage that have a high manufacturing cost and also no regulations governing their use.

Properties: high resistance to corrosion, durability, pleasing appearance, structural safety, habitability, compatibility with almost all materials and high processing capacity.

It has low linear expansion, so we can reduce or eliminate the expansion joints.

Union types: welding, mechanical bonding and bonded.

Uses and applications: swimming pools, wineries, promenade, freezer, unique architecture, decoration and maintenance in remote areas.

• GALVANIZED STEEL:

With a metal coating is covered with a layer of zinc by immersion, so there may be attached by welding, so the joints must be carried out mechanically, with galvanized nuts and bolts.

It is used for exterior but is worse than stainless steel, but this is cheaper.

• COR-TEN STEEL:

A type of steel to be exposed to the elements, generates a protective oxide film outside to prevent corrosion of steel.

In the presence of oxygen and water takes a corrosion process that protects the progress of corrosion.

Acquires a brown hue, and once that changes color and does not change back and the corrosion process does not continue.

It can be used outdoors to ensure its durability. It is a decorative element. A type of steel to be exposed to the elements, generates a protective oxide film outside to prevent corrosion of steel.

• TYPES OF PROFILES

• PROFILE U COMMERCIAL nominal height less than 80 mm. The wings have a thickness decreasing towards the edges. The joints between the faces of the soul and the inner faces of the wings are rounded.
• ANGLE ON THE SAME SIDE (L): the section is a right angle, with wings or sides of equal length. The faces of the wings are parallel and the union of inner faces are rounded. The wings have the outer edge with sharp edges and rounded interior.
• ROUND: straight constant cross-section is circular.
• SQUARE: straight constant cross-section is square.
• RECTANGULAR: straight constant cross-section is rectangular.
• HEX: straight constant cross-section is hexagonal.
• PROFILE (IPE): the I-shaped section, called double T. The outer and inner sides of the wings are perpendicular to the soul, so these have surfaced. The joints between the faces of the soul and the inner faces of the wings are rounded and the edges of the wings are alive.
• PROFILE NORMAL (IPN): the I-shaped section, called double T. The insides of the wings are perpendicular, so that the wings are decreasing thickness towards the edges. The joints between the faces of the soul and the inner faces of the wings are rounded. These have the edge to outer edge rounded and interior alive.
• PROFILE U NORMAL (UPN): the U-shaped section the wings are decreasing thickness towards the edges. The joints between the inner face of the soul and the inner faces of the wings are rounded. They have the edge with the outer edge rounded and interior alive.
• HE PROFILE: its shaped section H. outer and inner faces of the wings are perpendicular to the soul, so they have surfaced. The joints between the wings and the soul are rounded and the edges of the wings are alive.

• TYPES OF WELDING

• Fully
• A lap
• Exterior angle
• Interior angle
• On song

• WELDING SURFACE DEFECTS.

• BITES:
• Visual detection, has a string missing irregular in the filler material.
• Cause: bad driving electrode, current intensity too high or defective electrode.
• Danger: bad support efforts to tension and bending, should not be accepted.
• CORD HIGHLIGHT:
• Visual detection: there is too much filler material.
• Causes: defective execution.
• Hazard: ugly appearance.
• PORE SURFACE AND BITES:
• Visual detection or by liquid penetrant.
• Causes: high intensity of the current, overheating or primed and cutting arc.
• Hazard: decreased resistance
• OVERFLOW:
• Visual detection, has a convex bead with filler material excess.
• Causes: slow in laying the cord.
• Warning: look ugly and impossible to measure the throat
• POOR PENETRATION OF THE BASE:
• Visual detection: there is a lack of filler material
• Causes: too thick or poor electrode placement of the pieces.
• Hazard: break the cord.
• BEARD OF WELDING:
• Visual detection
• Causes: Excessive penetration
• Danger: it looks ugly.

• INTERNAL DEFECTS IN WELDING.

• Internal pores:
• Screening with ultrasound or X-rays: are internal cavities that contain gas.
• Causes: defective electrode
• Danger: it looks ugly.
• Shrinkage cracks:
• Screening with ultrasound or X-rays
• Causes: poor execution cord
• Danger: do not admit.
• EDGE FUSION DEFECTS:
• X-ray detection
• Causes: eccentric driving electrode, high current intensity or defective electrode.
• Danger: do not admit.
• LACK OF PENETRATION INSIDE:
• Detection by ultrasound or X-ray: no lack of material input.
• Causes: acute angles between the surface of the workpiece and welding the edges.
• Warning: according to the size of the defect.

• SLAG INCLUSION:
• Visual detection or X-ray or ultrasound, occurs because there is molten slag with the solder.
• Causes: incomplete removal of the slag or inappropriate speed.

• QUALIFICATION OF WELDING.

• PERFECT WELDING: Welding homogeneous and small gaseous inclusions.
• GOOD WELDING: Welding with weak deviations from homogeneity under the following defects: gaseous inclusions, slag inclusions, bite edges, lack of penetration, lack of fusion.
• REGULAR SOLDERING: solder with marked deviations under the following defects: gaseous inclusions, slag inclusions, bite edges, lack of penetration.
• POOR WELDING: Welding with great deviation from the homogeneity under the following defects: gaseous inclusions, slag inclusions, bite edges, lack of penetration, lack of fusion.
• Wlds VERY BAD: As bad welding but also cracking.

• METHODS OF DETECTION OF DEFECTS IN WELDS.

• VISUAL INSPECTION: is the most widespread. To be done by highly trained personnel who possess high visual acuity, natural or corrected, and can help some accessories.
• LIQUID PENETRANT: these and three liquid spray applied and show the shortcomings of pores and cracks that have welds. The liquids are:
• Cleaning fluid: a clear spray used to clean the slag.
• Liquid penetrant: a red spray penetrates the pores and cracks.
• Liquid revealing a white spray that shows the location of the defects.

The steps are:

• Remove husks
• Clean the surface with a brush
• Apply cleaning liquid
• Apply the liquid penetrant
• Reapply the cleaning fluid and clean the surface
• Apply the developer.

• Ultrasound: This method uses the propagation of sound in a solid medium and differentiation potential defects within the weld every time you change the characteristics of sound waves in the absence of metal or composition.
• X-RAY: This method is based on the property with the radiating particles penetrate metal and impress a photographic film with different tones when there is a discontinuity or a difference of density in the metal through. The defects are observed by changes in tone compared to weld metal and base.

Black: Welding healthy. Good

Blue: small welding defects. Good

Green: compact welding defects. Regular

Brown-colored compact notable defects. Mala

Red: large welding defects. Very poor

• WITH MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION: is a quick and convenient to detect cracks and other internal defects or invisible to normal. It is not necessary to do so in the case of structures.

• HEAT TREATMENT OF ALUMINUM:

• Temple: heating to a T th of 460 º C or 560 º C and cooled.
• Annealing: T ª> to the hardening and quenched.

• QUALITY CONTROL OF ALUMINUM:

• Thickness of the anodized layer, sealing the air permeability, water tightness under static pressure, identifying geometric and soundproofing.
  • Airtight: not us, then so does the manufacturer.
  • We do the tests, the manufacturers do. The thickness of anodized layer interests us because the greater thickness of greater cost.

• USE OF ALUMINUM IN CONSTRUCTION:

• Lattices, decks, siding, reflective elements, decorative and lightweight aluminum structures.

• Steps to soldering copper pipes

• clean the surface of the pipe with steel wool
• It goes a layer of flux.
• Are introduced or fit the tube and cuff one another.
• Heat the whole by soldier
• Apply the filler metal.

• Advantages of copper tube

• Easy installation, welding
• Withstands high temperatures and pressures
• Prevents bacterial growth
• Organic material.
• Durability

• Applications of copper and zinc

Copper + tin bronze

Copper + zinc brass

• Heat pipes, telephone and TV
• Decorative elements: brass
• Locksmith: brass.
• Faucets.

ZINC:

• Pipes.
• Covering
• Pipes.
• Alloys.

• Match the methods of reinforcing steel welding
• A top with bow
• Fully electric resistance
• For overlap: the best for this type of need.

• Steel yield strength test
• Testing of steel using the conventional boundary determination

The elastic limit is the unit load from which the specimen undergoes deformation no longer proportional to the effort / stress to which it is subjected.

Limit is considered, f, steel tension value which produces a permanent deformation of 0.2%.

If you see the step flow is considered here as the apparent elastic limit.

• Most common defects in the control of welds

• Surface:
  • Bites or cracks.
  • Excess material
  • Cavities or pores
  • External cracks
  • Defects in shape
• Internal:
  • Lack of internal penetration
  • Slag inclusions
  • Internal pores
  • Internal cracks
  • Edge fusion defects.

• Anodized
  • According to Jesus Ruiz Matari: EVERYONE WHAT YOU PUT OUT OF EGGS AND CO IN DEFAULT, O. KISS AND A MERRY CHRISTMAS

• Metal Forming

• Steels trials

• Diaphragm stress-strain
• Shock resistance
• Mechanical tensile, torsion, bending, bending, fatigue and toughness.

• DEFINE: IPE, IPN, HEA, HEM, UPN, SOLID ROUND, SQUARE / RECTANGULAR SOLID, SOLID OCTAGONAL

• PROFILE U COMMERCIAL nominal height less than 80 mm. The wings have a thickness decreasing towards the edges. The joints between the faces of the soul and the inner faces of the wings are rounded.
• ANGLE ON THE SAME SIDE (L): the section is a right angle, with wings or sides of equal length. The faces of the wings are parallel and the union of inner faces are rounded. The wings have the outer edge with sharp edges and rounded interior.
• ROUND: straight constant cross-section is circular.
• SQUARE: straight constant cross-section is square.
• RECTANGULAR: straight constant cross-section is rectangular.
• HEX: straight constant cross-section is hexagonal.
• PROFILE (IPE): the I-shaped section, called double T. The outer and inner sides of the wings are perpendicular to the soul, so these have surfaced. The joints between the faces of the soul and the inner faces of the wings are rounded and the edges of the wings are alive.
• PROFILE NORMAL (IPN): the I-shaped section, called double T. The insides of the wings are perpendicular, so that the wings are decreasing thickness towards the edges. The joints between the faces of the soul and the inner faces of the wings are rounded. These have the edge to outer edge rounded and interior alive.
• PROFILE U NORMAL (UPN): the U-shaped section the wings are decreasing thickness towards the edges. The joints between the inner face of the soul and the inner faces of the wings are rounded. They have the edge with the outer edge rounded and interior alive.
• HE PROFILE: its shaped section H. outer and inner faces of the wings are perpendicular to the soul, so they have surfaced. The joints between the wings and the soul are rounded and the edges of the wings are alive.

• ALUMINUM TEST

• Thickness of the anodized layer, sealing the air permeability, water tightness under static pressure, identifying geometric and soundproofing.
  • Airtight: not us, then so does the manufacturer.
  • We do the tests, the manufacturers do. The thickness of anodized layer interests us because the greater thickness of greater cost.

Steel tensile test

Stone:

• CLASSIFICATION OF THE ROCKS:

• Magmatic or igneous rocks, which in turn are divided into plutonic, volcanic and Philonian.
• Sedimentary rocks.
• Metamorphic rocks.

• ROCK TYPES:

• Igneous rocks, magmatic or igneous:

“Plutonic rocks: = slow cooling crystallization differentiating their minerals (granite, Little Mermaid, gabbro …)

“Volcanic rocks: rapid cooling on the outside = bad crystallization indistinguishable minerals (basalt, pumice …)

“Rocks Philonian cooling magma in veins (porphyry, aplite, pegmatite …)

• SEDIMIENTARIAS ROCKS:

They are produced by the weathering of other rocks, resulting in sediment transported to settling accounts through water and wind.

-Disintegrating: independent grains without cohesion (sand, clay, dust …)

-Compact: grains together (sandstones and conglomerates …)

-Other: gypsum …

• METAMORPHIC ROCKS:

They are produced by the metamorphism that takes place within the lithosphere as a result of the high internal energy of the earth, becoming a mineral to another (Marble, gneiss, slate …)

• WORK OF THE ROCK:

Till system:

Court: avoid overly large blocks.

Roughing: give the piece its approximate dimensions definitive profile

Finish or saw: to give the stone the desired shape and finish.

Size: demanding finishes: polished, cured and polished.

There are different types of finishes, smooth [sawed, honed, polished, bush hammered, flamed] and very rough [escafilado, acid washed]

• FLOORS:

Slabs to slabs, steps, curbs and paving.

• Requirements: non-slip grip, low porosity, fine grain, high resistance to abrasion, bending, resistance to acids and weathering.

Frost durability porosity slip

• Types of materials: granite, marble, slate and siliceous basalts.

• ROOFING:

Slabs or plates of reduced thickness and size not too big.

• Requirements: low density, impermeability, high resistance to bending and resistance to atmospheric agents.
• Types of materials: slate, good bending strength, lightweight, waterproof, high chemical resistance and good workability. Derived from the metamorphism of clays, hence its impermeability.

APPLICATIONS: natural rocks used for manufacturing of stone, paving, roofing and part as tiling.

• CLADDING:

Cutting thin slabs of square, rectangular or polygonal.

• Requirements: waterproof, no heladizas, low thermal conductivity, impact resistance, resistance to weathering.
• Types of materials: any stone
• Placement: anchor to the wall.
• Problems: degradation of salts, surface absorption of water and subsequent freezing, mortars and thin fluids of the plates with a risk of damage by impact.
• Solutions: Use a minimum thickness as rock type, avoid direct contact with soil, very dry mortars and low workability and allow evaporation of water.
• MARBLE:

Group of rocks consisting of limestone carbonate minerals, hardness 3-4, provided they can obtain samples of 12 x 5 x 1 cm minimum.

Marble is a compact type of metamorphic rock formed from limestone rocks under high Temp and pressure, achieve a high degree of crystallization. By compactness metamorphism acquires and loses porosity. The different colors which are the result of mineral impurities.

Mohs hardness = 9.

The pure white marble is the result of metamorphism of very pure limestones. The marble has a grainy texture, ie, comprising various grains distinguishable to the naked eye. The marble has a texture unalloyed saccharoid [bright white].

CLASSIFICATION OF MARBLE:

• BY NATURE:

• M. Chalice: saccharoid marble, limestone and marble carbonate themselves.
  • M. Silicea: jasper and serpentine.

• BY THE COLOUR AND SHAPE:
  • M. SIMPLE: a single apparent color
  • M. Veined, the veins showing
  • M. GAPS: those that occur in mass angular fragments of different colors.
  • M. Strange: those that contain foreign material.
• MAIN MARBLE:
  • Travertine
  • Rojo Alicante
  • Serpentine skin
  • Yellow Marble
  • Lumaquela
• REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD MARBLE
  • Be cool
  • Will look good
  • Must be free of defects

APPLICATIONS:

The main applications

• Construction: Flooring, bathroom countertops, vertical cladding and stairs
• Decoration furniture.
• Sculpture.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MARBLE AND LIMESTONE:

• The marble is less porous than limestone.
• The presence of small fossils limestone on the surface while the marble is absinthe of these fossils.
• With marble-sized specimens can make 12 x 5 x 1 without breaking.

• GRANITE:

A set of igneous rocks composed of different minerals: quartz, feldspar and mica.

Granite is a plutonic rock consisting predominantly of quartz, feldspar and mica also normally.

GRANITE AND TEXTURE FEATURES:

Plutonic has a texture or granitoidea, which can be distinguished at a glance all the minerals which are similar in size. Different granite forming minerals are:

• Quartz: is light in color, usually white. Provides hardness and chemical resistance.
• Feldspar: It is dark gray.
• Mica: is pink.

Its color is enhanced by polishing.

When minerals accumulate forming a dark spot, called foot rot.

REQUIREMENTS AS GRANITE CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL.

For a granite is considered of excellent quality must meet certain characteristics:

• Homogeneity
• No altered or broken areas
• Absence of large barges
• Absence of clay particles
• The sheets must be whole and free of cracks.

GRANITE POLISH:

Reduce the development surface for a smooth and shiny. To get a good polish is necessary to follow a series of steps:

• Sandstones: Remove visible irregularities.
• Honed: using pumice
• Smoothing: poets.
• Polishing.

As a result of surface development yields:

• Greater reflection of light.
• The water flowing.
• Difficult chemical attack.

GRANITE SURFACE TREATMENT:

Surface treatments have the sole purpose of improving the aesthetic appearance.

• Sawing: left visible teeth of the saw.
• Honed: intermediate stage of polishing.
• Bushhammering: treatment by Bujard.
• Flame: Flame treatment in which the feldspars jump.

GRANITE APPLICATIONS:

• Resistive elements, as resilient.
• In coatings, interior and exterior.
• In paving, floor slabs, pavers and tiles.
• Auxiliary elements.

THAT IS REQUIRED TO A FLOOR

• Wear resistance
• Flexural
• Abrasion resistance
• Be slip-resistant

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR NATURAL FLOOR

• Physical conditions: uniform, smooth surface finish and polished.
• Mechanical conditions: resistance to abrasion and flexing.
• Chemical conditions: resistance to atmospheric agents and acids.

Surface treatments of granite and marble

• sawing: left visible teeth of the saw and prevents the appearance of rough quarry
• Honed: intermediate stage of polishing
• Bushhammering: treatment by Bujard
• Flame: Flame treatment in which the feldspars jump.

Morphology natural stone

• Masonry: irregular rock quarry.
• Sillar: regular and unmanageable.
• Ashlar: regular and unmanageable.

Division of commercial granites

Artificial stone and marble trials

• Petografia and classification: microscopic examination of thin sections
• Absorption coefficient, specific gravity and porosity
• Frost resistance: weight loss after freeze-thaw process
• Compressive strength, tensile strength in uniaxial compression
• Flexural strength, modulus of rupture in bending of a plate
• Elastic modulus or Young’s modulus: the relationship between stress and strain
• Knoop hardness, resistance to indentation of diamond tip
• Shock resistance: free fall of a steel ball on the material under test.
• Resistance to the anchors: play the wear test of the angels.
• Geometric characteristics.

List and describe 5 conditions of artificial stone

• Corrosion
• Retraction
• Cracking
• Voids
• Porosity, aggregate size difference.
• Mal finished piece.

Lists and describes the effects of artificial stone facades

• Efflorescence
• Landslides
• Cracks and fissures
• Lost brightness
• Discoloration
• Dirt
• Oxidation

Timber:

• WOOD PROPERTIES:

• Physical Properties:

Are those that determine their behavior in the intervening factors in the environment, without producing mechanical or chemical modifications in its structure. This definition excludes changes due to changes in humidity.

These properties may vary depending on the factors:

• Tree growth.
• Age at which has been cut down.
• Moisture content.
• Fiber direction.

Wood themselves can be grouped as elements or external agents to which they respond:

• Behavior before the organoleptic properties (color, brightness, texture, smell …)
• Properties that determine the waterfront.
• Properties that determine the behavior under gravity (density, specific gravity and porosity)
• Properties that determine the behavior to heat (thermal conductivity and thermal expansion)
• Properties that determine the behavior

• PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD:

-MOISTURE: Self-absorbed and wood.

-Density: There are light woods, heavy and very light.

– CONTRACTION OR INCHAMIENTO: Ease of getting e hincharsecuando loses or absorbs water.

– HARDNESS: Can be hard, something tough, very tough.

– HENDEMICIDAD: easy to be cut in the direction of the fibers.

– Conductivity: low if it is dry, wet state increases.

– Thermal expansion.

-DURATION: poor when the wood is untreated.

• MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD:

“Compressive strength: it is maximum when performed in the direction parallel to the fiber.

-Tensile strength: it is maximum when it acts in the direction parallel to the fibers.

-Resistance to flexion is greatest when it acts in a direction perpendicular to the fibers.

-Shear strength: the ability of wood to resist forces tending to some of the material to slide over the adjacent to it.

– Elasticity: since the tensile and compressive strengths are different, it is difficult to determine the value of yield of wood.

– Hendibilidad: is the property of separating the wood cut in the direction of the fibers, parallel to the axis of the trunk.

– Hardness is the resistance of wear or scratching. According to its hardness, the wood is classified as:

Hardwoods (Ebony)

Quite hard (oak, maple, ash, poplar …)

Something hard (Chestnut, beech, walnut, pine …)

Soft (fir, pine)

Very soft (Poplar)

-Durability: This property is variable, since it depends on several factors:

Treatment, before being used.

The conditions of the work.

The changes of moisture and dryness.

Contact with the ground.

The type of wood

• THERMAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD:

– Thermal expansion, thermal expansion of wood vary depending on the direction considered. Nevertheless, the effect of thermal expansion is not very significant within the normal temperature ranges of exposure.

Increases in temperature cause expansion involving loss of water in the wood, and therefore declines.

– Specific heat: the wood is of the order of 0.32 kcal / kg º C. It is a low value compared with water.

– Thermal conductivity: wood and lignocellulosic materials are poor conductors of heat for his lack of free electrons. When wood is in the dry state is a great insulator.

• ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES OF THE WOOD:

SOUND-INSULATION TRANSMITTED BY AIR: The ability of a design element to prevent the transmission of sound through its thickness.

– INSULATION NOISE IMPACTS: the degree to which a floor or ceiling transmission tread cuts or impact, preventing its reception by air other than the emission site.

– DAMPING ACOUSTIC: The property to which, the materials tend to reduce noise in the same room in which it occurs.

• ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF THE WOOD:

Wood is a good electrical insulator when in dry state.

• WOOD:

Is a heterogeneous material. It can be classified into two: conifers and hardwoods.

Conifers or softwoods have a much simpler anatomical structure that broadleaved or hardwoods.

Wood is an orthotropic material found as the main contents of the trunk of a tree, and is composed of cellulose fibers bonded with lignin. It’s a very tough material.

Lignin resistance.

• PLANS AND SECTIONS CONTAINED IN THE WOOD:

To study the structure of the wood are three levels or reference sections, which are:

• Transverse plane: the plane perpendicular to the axis of the trunk or branch.
• Tangential plane: the plane parallel to the axis of the trunk and touches the trunk own circle, or ring of growth.
• Radial plane: the plane containing the axis of the trunk.

To study the mechanical properties of wood have to distinguish three sections:

• Longitudinal section, is parallel to the axis of the trunk.
• Tangential section, is contained in a plane tangential and perpendicular to the radius of the trunk.
• Radial section, is contained in a plane perpendicular to the radial and tangential.

• COMPOSITION OF THE WOOD:

• 50% cellulose, more dense than water, dried remains unchanged, only decomposes on contact with water.
• 20% of lignin, gives strength and rigidity.
• 20% of hemicellulose, are attacked by fungi and microorganisms. No influence or strength or toughness, but in the density.
• 10% other [colors]

STRUCTURE:

From outside to inside:

• Bark: thick layer irregular. Its mission is to protect and isolate the tree during its growth. Two distinct areas:
  • Outer crust, called epidermis, consists of dead cells. Who prevents the rain water and prevents evaporation occurs too strong. Protects the tree from invading fungi and insects.
  • Inner bark, bast or phloem. Formed by living cells. Through it moves food to different parts of the tree. Live a relatively short time, then dies and becomes part of the outer skin.
• The cambium, where growth actually occurs
• The sapwood, commonly called wood. Large amounts of water, is porous, thin and weak consistency.
• The heartwood or heart appears next to the sapwood. Characteristics of maximum strength and durability. Its color is darker than the sapwood. It is composed of cellulose fibers bonded with lignin.

The rings are narrower young trees, mature trees are wide and old trees are narrow. The closer they are, are harder.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE USE OF WOOD:

Resistance: Wood is anisotropic, since the texture and direction of its fibers makes their behavior is very different according to the directions of the efforts of the request.

Lightweight: its low specific gravity is an advantageous condition because, in addition to reducing the weight of the components, allows for easy transport and placing.

Hardness is greater or less facility offered by the different woods to penetration, cutting or polishing, depends on the cohesion of the fibers and their structure. Always harder than the sapwood heartwood.

Hendebilidad: ease offered by splitting wood in the direction of the fibers. Those that produce more hendebilidad are those with more fiber and no knots.

Flexibility is the ability to provide timber to bend or curve in the longitudinal direction without breaking.

Workability: This is the most characteristic property of all wood. Thanks to her, the wood may suffer: cutting, drilling, bending, carving, polishing, …

Insulation: good thermal insulation due to its lightness and porosity, poor insulation, and its properties are perfectly absorbing or reflecting and an awful isolation Cloths because water is part of nature.

The two major drawbacks of wood are:

Changeability: moves, twists, expands, contracts, and Hygrothermal by thermal variations.

Durability: It is very variable according to their area and their living conditions.

Other disadvantages: material subject to aging and decay, is not inert, suffering expansion with moisture, fire destroys it, is easily attacked by fungi and insects and are limited in size.

• USES OF WOOD:

Interior.

Industrial joinery.

Prefabricated houses.

Commercial decoration.

Restoration.

Carpentry for Assembly:

Structural elements: columns, beams, trusses for roofs, scaffolding, scaffolding, formwork, centering, etc.

Nonstructural elements, poles, sleepers, etc.

Carpentry workshop

Doors and windows, blinds, floors, etc..

• TESTS OF TIMBER:

The types of tests are related to their physical and mechanical properties.

Physical tests:

– Moisture content.

– Linear and volumetric contractions.

– Density.

– Hygroscopicity.

Mechanical testing:

– Hardness.

– Axial compression.

– Compression perpendicular to the fibers.

– Static bending strength (specimen 2 x 2 x 30).

Other mechanical tests:

– Resistance to mechanical bending.

– Tension perpendicular to the fibers.

– Resistance to cleave (hendibilidad).

• DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FAILURES AND ALTERATION:

ANOMALY: Anomaly or disturbance and damage defects are intrinsic to the growth of the tree itself. Alter the structure of wood and reduce their resistance.

ALTERIAN: Attacks wood gets formed after the woody tissue, which result in its destruction.

• DISTURBANCE OF THE WOOD:

KNOTS: The presence of structural activity interrupted knots. Are classified as: live knots, dead knots and knots covered.

ECCENTRICITY OF THE HEART: asymmetric growth of the trunk. Low elasticity and workability by heterogeneity.

Interlocking fibers: The fibers are interwoven into the wood, the surface is torn apart and makes it difficult to work.

Twisted grain: The fibers instead of following the direction of the axis of the tree are arranged in a helix (elements work in compression).

IRREGULARITIES IN THE WIDTH OF THE RINGS: Rings of different thicknesses or so warped.

ENTRECORTEZA: Lots of bark that are inside the trunk between the growth rings.

• WOOD TILL

• Felling or felling, can be done by hand with an ax or chain saw, you remove the branches and bark.
• Splitting, ripping for commercial products.
• Dismantling or binding: sawing all being made to divide the pieces into planks, boards, etc.

• CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD WOOD
• The fiber has a straight, straight shaft
• Regular rings
• Fresh smell
• That no cracks
• The surface when the cut is a sound surface.

• PROTECTION AGAINST BIOLOGICAL AGENTS
• APEO: the time of felling is a factor to consider given that the tree sap that has the inside at the time of harvest, will provide food and development of fungi. The best season is winter because during this time reduced the vegetative life of the tree.
• DESAVIADO: regardless of the time the cutting is to remove the sap and this is eliminated:
  • Leach: water washing
  • Steaming: washing by water vapor
• DRYING: The drying function is:
  • Stabilize, so that its moisture movement is negligible.
  • Avoid mushrooms, and they require a moisture content above 20%
  • Increase strength, and that a resistance

• WOOD TREATMENTS

Treatment systems of wood can be:

• Surface: protector is applied on the wood surface by brush or spray dry. Exclusively organic protective.
• Dip: dip the wood is dried in the treatment solution a period of approximately one hour.

• Treatments:
• Before being put into play:
  • Prolonged immersion
  • Empty-empty
  • By autoclaving
• After putting in work: they protect you against fungi, beetles and termites
  • Brushing
  • Injection
  • Spray

• TYPES OF BOARDS:
• Plywood: overlapping veneer fibers, fibers with alternately oriented orthogonally, and solidly by casein glues and pressed. The number of leaves is always odd.
• Laminate is formed by plates glued together so that the directions of the fibers are parallel.
• Slats, is formed of a core made of strips of different lengths equal or glued or not.
• Conglomerate: is formed by pieces of wood or other woody material, bonded together by an adhesive and pressure.
• Conglomerate: obtained from straw, leaves, chips … or mineralized conglomerates cement pastes or mortars. Given its stone constitute a material use in masonry and concrete structures, but no application in woodworking.
• Armed: is made from strips, straw … that are coated with different veneers, strongly attached by gluing and pressing. Application in the prefabrication of door leaves and boards for furniture.
• Of fiber is formed by alternating wood fibers and pressed, with binder or autoaglomerados.
• TAD: suitable material for interior and exterior.

• PLYWOOD: ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES:

Plywood: Every piece, straight or curved, obtained from smaller pieces in the form of tables and shelves, in successive layers bonded between divisions, so that the fibers of all the blades are parallel.

• Advantages:
  • Ability to manufacture large structural elements.
  • Obtain large pieces without cracks.
  • Projecting elements of uniform section.
  • Possibility of using less resistant timber.
  • Get decorative and architectural purposes
• Disadvantages:
  • Higher cost
  • Personnel required for assembly
  • Transportation difficulties in large pieces.

• ALTERATIONS OF THE WOOD:

Biotic: Seizures produced by living organisms (termites, beetles, fungi …)

Mold: The appearance of mold on wood.

Rot: Destruction of the wise decomposed due to a lack of drying of the wise.

Insects: woodworm and termites.

Marine organisms: mollusks, crustaceans.

Abiotic: Alterations produced by artificial conditions.

Fire: Poor performance with a heat source.

Outdoor: Changes in moisture, volumetric changes that lead to aging of cells.

Chemicals: attack by acids and bases. The lime and concrete may cause minor.

• Woodworm and Termites (insect attack):

Insects produce holes or galleries if the wood is exposed to air or in contact with the ground, ALWAYS IN THE PRESENCE OF OXYGEN.

Necessary conditions:

-T ª 0 º C to 45 º C.

-Air.

-Humidity: can develop in both dry and wet wood.

-Food.

In the growth phase of wood decay is when they destroy more, they will feed the wood piercing galleries. Advantage and convert the cellulose into sugars.

There are two groups: those that are introduced into the wood and will not play on it, and another which is reproduced on the inside of this.

The first stay on the outside of the timber forming shallow galleries to go outside.

The second are those who have more risk living in the depth causing further destruction (are you going to focus)

, Isoptera: termites, termites and white ants.

Subterranean termites: they live in large colonies in the soil. Its nest is out of the wood, but they are secondary and build nests up to the wooden galleries.

Drywood termites: they can destroy a structure without being noticed abroad, because they leave a thin layer about 1-2 cm. thick.

-BEETLES: woodworm.

Woodworm (Woodworm timber) are small. Pierce Galleries ø circular section 1 or 2 mm, filled with sawdust, granular and rough to the touch.

Lyctus (Moth timber) are small insects. Initially formed galleries in the direction of the fibers and then in all directions, which are full of very fine sawdust.

Cerambycidae: Woodworm large.

Beetles and platipodidos: Woodworm black.

-LEPIDOPTERA: oval galleries are 15 mm or larger. His cycle is 3 years or more.

– Hymenoptera: galleries are full of sawdust with feces.

• MARINE ORGANISMS:

– MOLLUSCS: the two main types are:

Borers, attack all types of naval construction, destroying levees, even boats.

-SHELLFISH: produces a surface attack, but is usually massive.

• CAS:

BOARD OF HIGH DENSITY [CAS]

This is a wooden board with artificial transformations based on the use of special resins, properly combined, which after processing is done to obtain a high-density and higher performance than other solicitations.

APPLICATIONS:

• Outdoors are used as vertical cladding on facades, roofs, floors, sidewalks, etc..
• In interiors have a dual purpose: as a floor, on floors, stairs, ramps … and as walls and ceilings.

FEATURES:

• For outdoor use, weatherproof, rain and frost, environmental insults and surface erosion
• For indoor use as paving, mechanical strength, abrasion and slip and stiffness.
• For indoor use as walls and ceilings, fire resistance, decorative features, lower specific gravity, abrasion resistant surface and requires less mechanical requirements.

ASSEMBLY:

The installation of outdoor TAD must be ventilated facade way, taking into account the following considerations:

• Ventilation is essential to obtain the face of the boards. They must have an air about 2 cm. thickness between the other face of the wall and the curtain wall. It should also be allowed the free movement of air from the bottom up
• The boards will never be placed butt against each other. It should leave a minimum of 8mm for potential expansion and to provide the necessary ventilation.

It said it could go to dibujásemos.

• CONSOLIDATION OF TIMBER STRUCTURES. TECHNICAL BETA: MATERIALS FOR AN ENHANCED BEAM

Is to replace the pieces of wood, the damaged parts of a body of epoxy mortar and a variable amount of sand and rods of fiberglass or polyester. Epoxy resins are characterized by similar behavior to that of wood, also has high adhesion to wood.

• Technical work:
  • • Court of the degraded with a chainsaw
    • Drill holes
    • Installation of bars
    • Formwork assembly
    • Epoxy mortar poured into the formwork
    • Epoxy mortar poured into the holes in the bars.