World War I: Causes, Conscription, and Key Battles
World War I: Causes and Conscription
Recruitment and Conscription
The First World War was fought predominantly by conscript armies fielding millions of ‘citizen-soldiers.’ The origins of conscription are in the French Revolution, when the first modern force was built on the idea that all male citizens had a duty to bear arms in defense of their nation. Prussia systematized the military model, developing a new form of universal short-service peacetime conscription.
The first Military Service Bill was passed into law in Britain in January 1916 after the number of volunteers for the armed forces had begun to dry up in the second half of 1915. Military service was obligatory first of all for single men in England, Scotland, and Wales aged 18 to 41. Those who were in jobs essential to the war effort, were medically unfit, or those who were conscientious objectors were exempt. It was later expanded to include married men, and the age limit was raised to 50.
Conscription in Europe
Military service was compulsory in Spain and France until 2001 when conscription was suspended during peacetime. During the final years before 2001, men between 18-25 had to do nine months of military service. Since 2002, the armed forces have consisted of professional soldiers. However, in France, all young men and women between the ages of 16-18 are obliged to participate in a compulsory one-day “rendez-vous citoyen” (national day of preparation for national defense).
Trenches and Uniforms
At the end of 1914, the armies of both sides reached a stalemate that lasted until 1917 (the Western Front moved 32 km in four years). Thousands of soldiers spent weeks in trenches in very bad conditions.
By the First World War, the British Army had transitioned from red to khaki uniforms in response to new technologies: aerial reconnaissance and smokeless guns were making soldiers’ visibility a real problem on the battlefield.
Causes of World War I
Alliances and Conflicts
- British-Belgian Alliance (1839): Germany’s invasion of Belgium, violating this alliance, drew Britain into the war.
- Need for Markets: As countries industrialized, competition for markets and colonies increased tensions.
- The Schlieffen Plan (1905): Germany’s plan to quickly defeat France by invading through Belgium contributed to the outbreak of war.
- The Triple Entente (1907): The alliance of Britain, France, and Russia countered the Triple Alliance and further divided Europe.
Crises and Tensions
- Bosnian Crisis (1908): Austria-Hungary’s annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina angered Serbia and Russia, escalating tensions in the Balkans.
- Agadir Crisis (1911): Germany’s attempt to challenge French influence in Morocco brought France and Britain closer together.
- Balkan Wars (1912-13): Serbia’s expansion and growing influence in the Balkans further destabilized the region.
- The Triple Alliance (1882): The alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy created a powerful bloc in Europe.
Military and Imperial Rivalries
- HMS Dreadnoughts: The development of these powerful battleships sparked a naval arms race between Britain and Germany.
- Arms Race: European powers engaged in a massive arms race, increasing military spending and conscription.
- Austrian Ambitions: Austria-Hungary’s desire to expand its empire clashed with Serbia’s ambitions, leading to conflict.
- French Fear: France’s concerns about German power led to its alliance with Britain.
- Naval Rivalry: Britain’s concern over Germany’s growing navy fueled tensions between the two nations.
- Russian Ambitions: Russia’s desire to regain its status as a major power and its support for Slavic nationalism in the Balkans contributed to the outbreak of war.
- Colonial Competition: Germany’s pursuit of colonies challenged existing colonial powers and increased international competition.
- Franco-Prussian War (1870): France’s defeat in this war and the loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany fueled French resentment and desire for revenge.