The Spanish Second Republic: From Dictatorship to Civil War
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1930)
Causes of the Coup
The military dictatorship emerged as a perceived solution to Spain’s crisis among the upper class, middle class, and the military due to several factors:
- Army discontent following the Annual disaster and the desire to avoid accountability.
- The rise of peripheral nationalisms, Republicans, and the labor movement.
- The success of fascism in Italy under Mussolini.
The Coup of 1923
Miguel Primo de Rivera, Captain General of Catalonia, led a coup on September 13, 1923, with the support of King Alfonso XIII. The 1876 Constitution was replaced with a military dictatorship amidst public indifference and minimal resistance.
Military Directory (1923-1925)
Primo de Rivera established himself as the sole minister, advised by a Military Board. Key actions included:
- Suppression of Catalan language and symbols.
- Strict enforcement of public order.
- Formation of the Patriotic Union party, inspired by Mussolini’s fascist Italy.
- Successful military campaign in Morocco, culminating in the Alhucemas Landing in 1925.
Civil Directory (1925-1930)
In late 1925, a civilian government led by Primo de Rivera replaced the Military Board, attempting to institutionalize the dictatorship. However, efforts like the National Consultative Assembly and the Corporate Labour union failed to gain traction.
Opposition and Fall of Primo de Rivera
Opposition to the dictatorship grew, fueled by discontent within the army and economic problems following the 1929 stock market crash. Facing mounting pressure, Primo de Rivera resigned in January 1930 and died in exile shortly after.
The Constitution of 1931 and the Reformist Biennium
Proclamation of the Republic
On April 14, 1931, the Second Spanish Republic was proclaimed, leading to King Alfonso XIII’s exile. A Provisional Government, led by Niceto Alcalá Zamora and composed of Republicans, Socialists, and Nationalists, was formed to address the demand for reforms.
Early Reforms and Challenges
The government initiated reforms in areas like agriculture, labor, military, and education, and launched the Interim Statute of Autonomy. However, challenges arose, including strikes by the anarchist CNT, confrontations with the Church, and the burning of churches and convents.
The 1931 Constitution
The Constituent Parliament elections in June 1931 resulted in a Republican-Socialist coalition majority. The new Constitution, adopted in December 1931, established Spain as a democratic republic with universal suffrage, civil rights, a unicameral legislature, and separation of church and state.
The Reformist Biennium (1931-1933)
Manuel Azaña’s government, formed by Left Republicans and Socialists, implemented a program of reforms, including:
- Labor reforms led by Largo Caballero.
- Educational reform with school construction, teacher recruitment, and secular education.
- Military reform requiring an oath of allegiance to the Republic.
- Agrarian reform, which faced challenges and led to disappointment.
Social Tensions and Political Shifts
The CNT, influenced by the FAI, and the Communist Party of Spain (PCE) adopted radical stances. The economic crisis and employer opposition to reforms exacerbated social tensions. General Sanjurjo’s failed coup attempt in 1932 highlighted the instability.
Following incidents in Casas Viejas and the passage of the Agrarian Reform Law and the Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia, new elections were called in November 1933. The conservative groups, including CEDA and Spanish Renewal, emerged victorious.
The Rise of the Popular Front
The conservative victory was met with an anarchist insurrection. In response, the Popular Front, a coalition of center-left parties, was formed in January 1936. Their victory in the February elections set the stage for the Spanish Civil War, which would erupt following a military coup.