Pre-Colonial Literature and European Expansionism
Pre-Colonial Literature Til 1620. What drove European expansionism/colonization in the first place? During the 14th and 15th centuries, a series of factors drove Europeans to expand and in some cases, colonize. Some of those factors were the conflicts that England took part in, like the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453) against France; the War of the Roses (1455-1485) between two English dynasties and the Reconquista. These conflicts created an intensely local and regional ordeal. Another important factor that contributed was the epidemics of the Black Death, or bubonic plague, between 1347 and 1400. Due to the plague, approximately 25,000,000 people died. The Ottoman Empire controlled the overland routes from Europe to South Asia, with its markets of spices and other commercially lucrative goods. Seeking to establish a sea route to the region, the Portuguese prince, Henry the Navigator, sponsored expeditions down to the Atlantic coast of Africa. Later expeditions attempted to reach the Indian Ocean, but they were severely tested by the rough seas at the Cape of Good Hope. Christopher Columbus had been a member of several voyages and proposed an alternative, transatlantic route. In 1484, he requested the sponsorship of John II, the king of Portugal, who refused to support an exploratory journey. After the phase of Reconquista and having lost so many of its best minds, Spain faced a very slow economic recovery. Christopher Columbus. The first “literary” document in America was written in Spanish, and it was written by the same Christopher Columbus to Luis de Santangel in 1493. These letters were translated into many languages and the most important ones discuss the problems Spaniards had in the colony of La Española. From a letter to Luis de Santangel. The writer’s purpose is to inform and describe the wonders of this new land, we perceive a tone of victory in it. Columbus also makes a geographical account of the Island. All along the letter we perceive a sort of magic realism, the place is described almost as a magic place, he is in love with the beauty of this place. From a letter to Ferdinand and Isabella regarding the fourth voyage. The letter is written in 1503 in Jamaica, while the Europeans are extending through the north and the south of the Caribbean discovered by Columbus. In this letter directed to Los Reyes Católicos, Columbus is trying to inform and persuade. He attacks the unjust situation in the Indies. He is appealing to justice and facts. He is also complaining about how he was treated after his service to the crown. According to the writing style of Columbus in this letter we can say that he uses a tone that is sometimes supplicant, imploring…Bartolomé de las Casas. He was one of the first Spanish settlers in the Americas, he wrote against the first decades of Native American brutal mistreatment. At the beginning, he participated in the Encomienda system but he eventually left repelled due to the abuse that the colonizers portrayed over the Native Americans. The first work by Bartolomé de las Casas was used as a weapon against Spain and it was a humiliation for Spain. From the very brief relation of the devastation of the Indies. This is a literature of witness, in it Bartolomé tries to inform and persuade appealing to the concept of universal love. He is sometimes portrayed as one of the first advocates of what later will be called Human Rights. In this text, Bartolomé uses a plain style that visually articulates a chilling account and provides horrendous details (massacres, greed for gold…). He attacks the labor mines as something terrific, a depopulated desert. More horrendous scenes are portrayed in this text like the bodies thrown at sea and Indians dying of hunger and thirst, the separation of families, the harvest of pearls, something that was the most cruel thing…etc.
Cabeza de Vaca. Cabeza de Vaca was one of the first explorers in North America and the first who probably reported about the Native Americans and their traditions. His colleague during this expedition was Pánlo de Narvaez and another 400 men. Everybody who was leg decided to follow Cabeza de Vaca since he was one of the main explorers. Although many other men died due to hungry and tropical diseases, Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca continued his journey and did reach Florida. Adventures in the Unknown interior of America. Indeed, this work is a collection of letters supposed to be sent to the Spanish king Charles V. Through these texts, Cabeza de Vaca does not show at all Native Americans as savages, but does show his own men who betrayed him. Therefore, it can be said that the writer is found as an observer and not as a hero. Objectivity is slightly found in the writing, though the explorer shows himself so curious that he constantly adds observer notes and adjectives of opinion. In addition, Cabeza de Vaca justice the exploration of the continent and suggests a deeper expedition up to the reach of the coast. A very incredible fact is that at some very time of his journey, this Spanish conqueror is finally seen and appreciated by Native Americans since he is thought to be a kind of “healer.” This appreciation and approach is possible because of his dominion of the tribes’ languages and the knowledge of their costumes. John Smith. He was born into a farmer’s family in Willoughby (Lincolnshire). After his father’s death, while being 16, he went to the Netherlands as a volunteer soldier to fight for the Dutch independence. This marked the beginning of his military career. Despite the importance of religion at the time, Smith did not show such vocation to God, but focused on adventurous and descriptive topics. Along with his literacy, it can also be found in his clear individualism. Smith does describe himself as an adventurer and a proper hero who faces the uncanny and defeats his enemies. According to his texts, John Smith represents the so-called ‘Manifest Destiny,’ which claimed the Europeans’ right to conquer the New World in order to ‘civilize’ its inhabitants and if needed, exterminate the resistants. When reading his texts, readers can find several military terms which can be explained by his military formation and, in addition, some words from Native American’s languages. His literature or documentaries are definitely classified as
travelling narrative. A very remarkable feature of this writer is his constant use of the third person narrator. The reason why Smith uses this form may be to contribute more credibility and consequently an objective point of view (unachievable, though). Despite this preference, John Smith’s texts are propaganda and self-promotion texts. In addition, Smith uses these texts to justify his acts and prove his leadership beyond his colleges. This self-promotion and egocentrism is clearly detected during his adventures at Virginia River when he needs new crops and food for his followers. Later on, he is captured by the “savages” whose descriptions are either proportioned. At this very moment of his expedition, he wants readers to wonder
what is going on with him: whether he will survive or not. Smith compares the English political organization with the tribe’s one. It is really interesting his captivity moment because the explorer will be constantly adding new information about these tribes and their customs. For instance, Smith makes interpretations of their acts as when they apparently celebrated a ceremony to receive him. Colonial North America (1620-1743). Influences of Puritanism Protestantism meant protesting against the Roman Church. Luther was the first reformer of the Catholic Church. He considered the sale of indulgences and the Treasury of Heaven to be a total corruption, thus he opposed them. He thought that a correct relationship would grant people salvation. In 1517 he wrote the “95 Thesis”, which he posted on a piece of paper on the walls of the Wittenberg Castle. He was excommunicated. John Calvin was the second reformer after Luther. His reformation was based on (1) complete sovereignty of God, (2) on the doctrine of predestination and (3) on five points embraced by the Puritans: 1. Total depravity: we are all sinful creatures “thanks to” the fall of Adam, thus, man is unable to gain his salvation 2. Unconditional election: God saves/elects who he will save and condemn 3. Limited atonement: limited for some people; it is not for everybody. Christ only for the elect 4. Irresistible grace: God’s grace is freely given to us; it cannot be erased nor resisted we are born with it 5. Perseverance of the Saints: the Saints were the Puritans. The Saints had to persevere, keep proving they were Saints. 1. Covenant or Federal Theology. The concept of a covenant or contract between God and his elect pervaded Puritan theology and social relationships. In religious terms, several types Covenants were central to Puritan thought. The Covenant of Works held that God promised Adam and his progeny eternal life if they obeyed the moral law. After Adam broke his covenant, God made a new covenant with Abraham. The Covenant of Grace requires an active faith, and, as such, it softens the doctrine of predestination. Although God still chooses the elect, the relationship becomes one of contract in which punishment for sins is a judicially proper response to disobedience. The Covenant of Redemption was assumed to be preexistent to the Covenant of Grace. 2. The New England Way. The concept of the covenant also provided a practical means of organizing churches. Since the state did not control the church, the Puritans looked for other methods of establishing authority in both political and religious spheres; God’s word. This new way of authority ensured order and a functional system of religious and political governance. This system came to be called the New England Way. 3. Church membership Unlike Anglican and Catholic churches of the time, Puritan churches did not hold that all parish residents should be full church members, only the elect. As a test of election, many New England churches began to require applicants for church membership to testify to their personal experience of God in the form of autobiographical conversion narratives. Since citizenship was tied to church membership, the motivation for experiencing conversion was secular and civil as well as religious in nature. William Bradford. William Bradford was the first pilgrim writer from the Plymouth colony who wrote in English language. Bradford was born in Yorkshire (England), where he was raised in a poor family which educated him following the protestant model. Pilgrims promoted a complete separation between Church and State. However, it was absolutely rejected by the King of England. Since the King did not accept such separation and consequently marginated them, Bradford had to escape along with his colleagues to the New Continent. They were called pilgrims because of the pilgrimage they set forth on America in order to end purification and peace. History of Plymouth Plantation. Is the first writing by William Bradford and probably the most relevant document composed by pilgrims. Bradford thought that the pilgrim community and hard work must absolutely coexist since it is clearly what God asks in the Bible. In this book, Bradford gathers the misfortunes of the risky pilgrimage to America through the Atlantic Ocean and his settlement in New England. In this text we found topics such as religion, obviously focusing on puritanism (the English interpretation of separatism). The economy; due to famine Bradford decides to change the economic structure, each family must now have their own farm. The Native Americans approach through the celebration of thanksgiving day but also the problems with them, the Pequot war. The style of this text is plain, there are no ornaments, not imaginative, there is a simplicity in order to avoid distractions from what is told. Is clear and direct. There are constant allusions to God. The tone is a religious one, one of faith, community and sacrifice. The writer’s purpose is to inform. to provide an account of the journey, also he tries to persuade us of the Divine providence and also we observe a didactic purpose trying to teach the reader a moral lesson. To conclude with this text, it is worth saying that the large use of verbs gave the text a huge dynamism. John Winthrop. John Winthrop (1588-1649) was governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony – a group of entrepreneurs who left Europe in search of trade opportunities in the New World. Like most members of the Colony, Winthrop was a Puritan. This group claimed that the Church of England was corrupted by selfish leaders and petty Squabbles. A Model of Chirstian Charity. John Winthrop’s Model of Christian Charity delivered on board the Arbella as members of the Massachusetts Bay Colony sailed toward the New World describes the struggle of Puritans and their errand into the wilderness. At the beginning of the text Winthrop makes clear his idea of inequality in human society, and then he enumerates the reasons why God wants such inequality. He also explains what is the main rule of behaviour which is that every man should help those who need it: The amount of help should be regulated only by one’s own basic needs, Withrop encourage chrstinasn to help. He also says that under normal circumstances every man should give whatever he does not need for himself and his family. A man who gives will be taken care of by God. and that all those he helps will stand as witnesses of his generosity and mercy when his day of judgment arrives. Also for him the rule of forgiving a debt is simple: if he has no means to repay the loan, the lender must forgive the debt. Winthrop in his fight for setting rules for living in community, compares the Christian community to a single body where each individual serves for a common whole. The members of a community are bound by serving God, so they must fight together against adversities. He compares this bond with the one that joins mother and son. They must follow these rules in order to not be punished by God. By the end of the sermon, Withrop refers to the colony as a city upon a hill, which means that they are constantly being watched by the rest of the people of the world and that also that God will judge them if they fall from it. Bartolomé de las Casas. He was one of the first Spanish settlers in the Americas, he wrote against the first decades of Native American brutal mistreatment. At the beginning, he participated in the Encomienda system but he eventually left repelled due to the abuse that the colonizers portrayed over the Native Americans. The first work by Bartolomé de las Casas was used as a weapon against Spain and it was a humiliation for Spain. From the very brief relation of the devastation of the Indies. This is a literature of witness, in it Bartolomé tries to inform and persuade appealing to the concept of universal love. He is sometimes portrayed as one of the first advocates of what later will be called Human Rights. In this text, Bartolomé uses a plain style that visually articulates a chilling account and provides horrendous details (massacres, greed for gold…). He attacks the labor mines as something terrific, a depopulated desert. More horrendous scenes are portrayed in this text like the bodies thrown at sea and Indians dying of hunger and thirst, the separation of families, the harvest of pearls, something that was the most cruel thing…etc. Cabeza de Vaca. Cabeza de Vaca was one of the first explorers in North America and the first who probably reported about the Native Americans and their traditions. His colleague during this expedition was Pánlo de Narvaez and another 400 men. Everybody who was leg decided to follow Cabeza de Vaca since he was one of the main explorers. Although many other men died due to hungry and tropical diseases, Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca continued his journey and did reach Florida. Adventures in the Unknown interior of America. Indeed, this work is a collection of letters supposed to be sent to the Spanish king Charles V. Through these texts, Cabeza de Vaca does not show at all Native Americans as savages, but does show his own men who betrayed him. Therefore, it can be said that the writer is found as an observer and not as a hero. Objectivity is slightly found in the writing, though the explorer shows himself so curious that he constantly adds observer notes and adjectives of opinion. In addition, Cabeza de Vaca justice the exploration of the continent and suggests a deeper expedition up to the reach of the coast. A very incredible fact is that at some very time of his journey, this Spanish conqueror is finally seen and appreciated by Native Americans since he is thought to be a kind of “healer.” This appreciation and approach is possible because of his dominion of the tribes’ languages and the knowledge of their costumes. John Smith. He was born into a farmer’s family in Willoughby (Lincolnshire). After his father’s death, while being 16, he went to the Netherlands as a volunteer soldier to fight for the Dutch independence. This marked the beginning of his military career. Despite the importance of religion at the time, Smith did not show such vocation to God, but focused on adventurous and descriptive topics. Along with his literacy, it can also be found in his clear individualism. Smith does describe himself as an adventurer and a proper hero who faces the uncanny and defeats his enemies. According to his texts, John Smith represents the so-called ‘Manifest Destiny,’ which claimed the Europeans’ right to conquer the New World in order to ‘civilize’ its inhabitants and if needed, exterminate the resistants. When reading his texts, readers can find several military terms which can be explained by his military formation and, in addition, some words from Native American’s languages. His literature or documentaries are definitely classified as
travelling narrative. A very remarkable feature of this writer is his constant use of the third person narrator. The reason why Smith uses this form may be to contribute more credibility and consequently an objective point of view (unachievable, though). Despite this preference, John Smith’s texts are propaganda and self-promotion texts. In addition, Smith uses these texts to justify his acts and prove his leadership beyond his colleges. This self-promotion and egocentrism is clearly detected during his adventures at Virginia River when he needs new crops and food for his followers. Later on, he is captured by the “savages” whose descriptions are either proportioned. At this very moment of his expedition, he wants readers to
wonder
what is going on with him: whether he will survive or not. Smith compares the English political organisation with the tribe’s one. It is really interesting his captivity moment because the explorer will be constantly adding new information about these tribes and their customs. For instance, Smith makes interpretations of their acts as when they apparently celebrated a ceremony to receive him.
Colonial North America (1620-1743). Influences of Puritanism Protestantism meant protesting against the Roman Church. Luther was the first reformer of the Catholic Church. He considered the sale of indulgences and the Treasury of Heaven to be a total corruption, thus he opposed them. He thought that a correct relationship would grant people salvation. In 1517 he wrote the “95 Thesis”, which he posted on a piece of paper on the walls of the Wittenberg Castle. He was excommunicated. John Calvin was the second reformer after Luther. His reformation was based on (1) complete sovereignty of God, (2) on the doctrine of predestination and (3) on five points embraced by the Puritans: 1. Total depravity: we are all sinful creatures “thanks to” the fall of Adam, thus, man is unable to gain his salvation 2. Unconditional election: God saves/elects who he will save and condemn 3. Limited atonement: limited for some people; it is not for everybody. Christ only for the elect 4. Irresistible grace: God’s grace is freely given to us; it cannot be erased nor resisted we are born with it 5. Perseverance of the Saints: the Saints were the Puritans. The Saints had to persevere, keep proving they were Saints. 1. Covenant or Federal Theology. The concept of a covenant or contract between God and his elect pervaded Puritan theology and social relationships. In religious terms, several types Covenants were central to Puritan thought. The Covenant of Works held that God promised Adam and his progeny eternal life if they obeyed the moral law. After Adam broke his covenant, God made a new covenant with Abraham. The Covenant of Grace requires an active faith, and, as such, it softens the doctrine of predestination. Although God still chooses the elect, the relationship becomes one of contract in which punishment for sins is a judicially proper response to disobedience. The Covenant of Redemption was assumed to be preexistent to the Covenant of Grace. 2. The New England Way. The concept of the covenant also provided a practical means of organising churches. Since the state did not control the church, the Puritans looked for other methods of establishing authority in both political and religious spheres; God’s word. This new way of authority ensured order and a functional system of religious and political governance. This system came to be called the New England Way. 3. Church membership Unlike Anglican and Catholic churches of the time, Puritan churches did not hold that all parish residents should be full church members, only the elect. As a test of election, many New England churches began to require applicants for church membership to testify to their personal experience of God in the form of autobiographical conversion narratives. Since citizenship was tied to church membership, the motivation for experiencing conversion was secular and civil as well as religious in nature.
William Bradford. William Bradford was the rst pilgrim writer from the Plymouth colony who wrote in English language. Bradford was born in Yorkshire (England), where he was raised in a poor family which educated him following the protestant model. Pilgrims promoted a complete separation between Church and State. However, it was absolutely rejected by the King of England. Since the King did not accept such separation and consequently marginated them, Bradford had to escape along with his colleagues to the New Continent. They were called pilgrims because of the pilgrimage they set forth on America in order to end purification and peace. History of Plymouth Plantation. Is the rst writing by William Bradford and probably the most relevant document composed by pilgrims. Bradford thought that the pilgrim community and hard work must absolutely coexist since it is clearly what God asks in the Bible. In this book, Bradford gathers the misfortunes of the risky pilgrimage to America through the Atlantic Ocean and his settlement in New England. In this text we found topics such as religion, obviously focusing on puritanism (the english interpretation of separatism). The economy; due to famine Bradford decides to change the economic structure, each family must now have their own farm. The native Americans approach through the celebration of thanksgiving day but also the problems with them, the Pequot war. The style of this text is plain, there are no ornaments, not imaginative, there is a simplicity in order to avoid distractions from what is told. Is clear and direct. There are constant allusions to God. The tone is a religious one, one of faith, community and sacrifice. The writer’s purpose is to inform. to provide an account of the journey, also he tries to persuade us of the Divine providence and also we observe a didactic purpose trying to teach the reader a moral lesson. To conclude with this text, it is worth saying that the large use of verbs gave the text a huge dynamism. John Winthrop. John Winthrop (1588-1649) was governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony – a group of entrepreneurs who left Europe in search of trade opportunities in the New World. Like most members of the Colony, Winthrop was a Puritan. This group claimed that the Church of England was corrupted by selfish leaders and petty Squabbles. A Model of Chirstian Charity. John Winthrop’s Model of Christian Charity delivered on board the Arbella as members of the Massachusetts Bay Colony sailed toward the New World describes the struggle of Puritans and their errand into the wilderness. At the beginning of the text Winthrop makes clear his idea of inequality in human society, and then he enumerates the reasons why God wants such inequality. He also explains what is the main rule of behaviour which is that every man should help those who need it: The amount of help should be regulated only by one’s own basic needs,Withrop encourage chrstinasn to help. He also says that under normal circumstances every man should give whatever he does not need for himself and his family. A man who gives will be taken care of by God. and that all those he helps will stand as witnesses of his generosity and mercy when his day of judgment arrives. Also for him the rule of forgiving a debt is simple: if he has no means to repay the loan, the lender must forgive the debt. Winthrop in his fight for setting rules for living in community, compares the Christian community to a single body where each individual serves for a common whole. The members of a community are bound by serving God, so they must fight together against adversities. He compares this bond with the one that joins mother and son. They must follow these rules in order to not be punished by God. By the end of the sermon, Withrop refers to the colony as a city upon a hill, which means that they are constantly being watched by the rest of the people of the world and that also that God will judge them if they fall from it.
Roger Williams. He was born in 1603 and died in 1683. He immigrated to New England aboard the Lyon with his wife, Mary, in 1630. He was a Puritan with radical opinions for his time: he was firm in his beliefs on allowing religious freedom to ̈unregenerate ̈ people, on the separation between church and state, and on treating the Indians with respect. A Key Into the Language of America. It was written in 1643 .It was the first detailed study of an Indian language printed in English. The most described language is the Narragansett language. It was an Algonquian language that was spoken mostly in the east coast of North America.His book helped integrate American Indian words into English some examples are: Mocassin, Quahog, moose… The primary intention of Roger Williams was to facilitate the communication between the English and the Native Americans and to share the native ́s culture and traditions. He described them as kind, courteous, intelligent, etc. This would hopefully generate respect, between the natives and his own people. According to Williams, this would please God. Even though Williams does mention the Great point of Conversion in his book, which indicates that he wasn’t entirely against the conversion of natives, it is not his main focus and he does not consider it vital. He wishes to help the natives through religion, with matters of the soul, and to help them understand the world better, for example, but he is not consistent in this regard. In the text there is a sense of discovery and curiosity, we can see that there was an anthropological fascination with the Native Americans because these were shrouded in mystery. Cotton Mather. Was a New England Puritan minister, prolific author, and pamphleteer. One of the most important intellectual figures in English-speaking colonial America, Mather is remembered today chiefly for his Magnalia Christi Americana (1702) and other works of history, for his scientific contributions to plant hybridization and to the promotion of inoculation as a means of preventing smallpox and other infectious diseases, and for his involvement in the events surrounding Salem. Ann Bradstreet. She was born in 1612 in Northampton, England. She married at the age of 16, and was the mother of 8 children.She migrated at the time of foundation of Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630, as part of the Winthrop fleet of puritan dissenters ̈Arbella ̈. According to her writing style we can say that she is wonderful and talented. She expressed her deepest thoughts and fears, found peace and comfort, so no puritan plain style.She is personal and direct, she talks about own experiences, of religion, daily life, of her thoughts and struggles…. Her poetry is also comunicative, rather than didactic and doctrinaire. She keeped her writings
privately; sharing them with her family and friends. Although she is a representative of the ideal puritan wife and mother, her poems reflect those images as well as give the opportunity to question them.
To my dear and loving Husband. This poem was written between 1641 and 1643. To sum up this poem speaks to her husband celebrating their unity. No man in the world whose wife loves him more. She is a happy wife, she prizes her husband ́s love more than gold. When they die, their love will live on. In this poem we perceive themes like being a unity, that family should overweight materialism. Love is portray as thirst, erotic attraction. There is also a spiritual perspective, love will be eternal, lovers union in Heaven and outcome of the saved.
In Memory of My Dear Grandchild Elizabeth Bradstreet, Who deceased August, 1665, Being a Year and a Half Old. To sum up this poem, this is an elegy to the death of her grandchild. Saddened but cannot help to acknowledge that the path of destiny is predefined. She blames herself for being so attached to her granddaughter. Bids goodbye to the Memories. In this poem we perceive an emphasis by repetition, she’s gone. She blames herself and is punished. Questions her own grief, the baby has gone to be with God. Natural order of life, growth and death. Comfort in her faith that it is God’s hand. Edward Taylor. He was born in England during the civil war between royalists and Puritans. He developed radical Protestant convictions during Cromwell’s regime, so he was severely tested during the first years of the Restoration of Charles II in 1660. He refused to accept the Act of Uniformity of 1662, so he was not allowed to teach and worship in peace. His work was unpublished during his lifetime, and it was discovered after his death in the Yale Library in 1937. The poems suggest an interesting tension in Taylors religious thinking. About his poetry we can say that have a hard dogmatism, common in Puritan poetry. However, there is a lyrical emotional intensity in Taylor ́s poetry. The poems are full of great inner dramatism and imagery. This imagery is a mixture of biblical motifs and everyday realities. As a Puritan minister, he would have been trained to give straightforward rational sermons. Nonetheless, Taylor ́s poems have a strong influence from the ̈metaphysical ̈tradition of the english poets, John Donne and George Herberts (they were pastors and wrote spiritual poetry). He was a poet of the Enlightenment: he experienced the transition to the human center world. He questioned it. He was trying to discover his consciousness. He uses a lot of topics in his poems. His religious poems are metaphysical (meditative and philosophical poetry focused on themes of death, God and love). Meditation 8. In this poem Taylor mentions Galileo, who had been excomulgated due to his Astronomy, which was more natural than divine. Therefore, we might say religion is seen from a more rational point of view in this period, but with devotion. Imagery he is looking at the sky sees a golden path from God’s Heaven. He makes references to the original sin. Greek image; the bird of paradise is the soul, which is kept inside the prison of the body. The original sin is affecting the bird. We observed inversion in the correct order of the sentences. The idea of bread for the soul. There is nothing for the Bird of Paradise(our souls) to feed, but God’s Grace intervenes. God is giving his love and mercy to us.God took his own son to make Bread of Life for us. God sacrifices his own son to save us and he gives us the opportunity to have God’s Grace. Taylor wants people to embrace God’s Word. Taylor uses the Heaven sugar cake to refer to Jesus. It is better than other breads. Tylor is saying that if you follow God’s steps you will be immortal. There is a tendency to rearrange the syntax common in metaphysics.
Meditation 16. We have to rearrange the syntax in the sentence. He wishes to learn and find a nimble spirit within himself to improve his service as a priest. His poetry shows us the intensity of his thoughts and his full-hearted adoration for God.Also we observed the transition to the human center world. He speaks about religion from a more rational point of view. He questions it. Also we can say that there is a huge intensity in his words. Taylor is saying he is very devoted to God and he is able to die for his religious thoughts. To symbolize the cold sinfulness of his and humanity’s hearts. Unable to warm herself which can be interpreted as the son of God.Taylor connects the simple material of the coat with the lamb from which the fleece comes. The Lamb of God represents Jesus when he was sacrificed due to human sins and lambs were sacrificed in order to be eaten by people during Easter. Mary Rowlandson. Was a puritan woman who moved to the frontier between New England and Indian territories. Right there, she was captured by the Native Americans. Mary Rowlandson’s Captivity Narratives became a typical American narrative about her captivity in Native American’s tribes. This type of narratives will be written until the 19th Century, so she could be considered the pioneer of this genre. Nonetheless, aGer her writings, captivity narratives were likely ctional. It is key to notice the puritan context which raises the importance of God and the Bible. In fact, many of these narratives were revised by puritan ministers. These women were represented as martyrs of God and their captivities were even exaggerated and masculinised by these ministers. Besides, Rowlandson does describe sometimes Indians in a positive way despite having her captured. The author also provides descriptions about Indians’ costumes and traditions so that readers can learn about them. The author shows a clear preference to Weetamoo since she is a woman and treats her well. On the other hand, her husband, Quanopen mistreats Rowlandson and commands her when she disagrees. Something very impressive when reading this story is that she is provided with a Bible, a highly important item for a puritan woman. By the use of removes, Rowlandson shows how Native Americans moved as nomads from one place to another, changing their location constantly. Therefore, the reader can find kinds of chapters distributed in these remotes in different locations throughout New England. This structure is composed of up to twenty remotes which imitate the migrations to different locations. These narratives were supposed to educate the reader (primarily her friends and family) and make them understand God’s true will. It means that everything, mankind’s lives, is a trial made by God. Although the book was rst published in England thanks to her brother, Mary Rowlandson could be considered the first female writer in the colonies.
John Locke. Was an English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers and commonly known as the Father of Liberalism. He’s considered one of the first British empiricists, following the tradition of Sir Francis Bacon he is equally important to the social contract theory. His writings influenced Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American revolutionaries. His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the “United States Declaration of Independence”. Locke’s was the first to define the self through a continuity of consciousness. He postulated that, at birth, the mind is a blank slate or tabula rasa. Contrary to Cartesian philosophy based on pre-existing concepts, he maintained that humans are born without innate ideas and that knowledge is instead determined only by experience derived from sensed perception (empiricism). Expanding world and universe Enlightenment emphasize human sympathy or “sentiment” as a catalyst for moral choice. Moral action encouraged the belief that each individual had the power to control their spiritual destiny. Enlightenment had a political as well as economic and religious implication. Hector St. John de Crèvecoeur. He was born in France (Normandy), but was educated in England for most of his life. He immigrated to America just before the Revolution, thus was a witness. America would become his adopted homeland. He is known mostly for his Letters from an American Farmer (1782), in which he spoke about how the European when he went to America, underwent a series of metamorphoses, a resurrection. He became a new man. These letters were composed in New York, where he was a farmer in Pine Hill, between 1759 and 1768. The letters are written in the voice of fictional James the Farmer, who is requested by an Englishman to satisfy his curiosity about America. The author writes about the New World in the tradition of “eyewitness literature”. He offers the inside observations of a resident, instead of the bland comments of a tourist. These letters dictate terms to Europe about how America will repair the ills of the Old World. They also offer an American literary voice: the “American primitive”, who is insightful, ironic and wiser than his “civilised” counterparts. The letters are divided into inquiries about three regions in America and their activities: the South and its slavery, New England and its whaling and the Middle Atlantic states and their farms. Jonathan Edwards. He was born on October 5 1703. His father was a church minister and also tutored boys for college. Started college at the age of 13. Influenced by nature and science with Isaac Newton and the works of John Locke. He made a diary of the development of his religious and philosophical beliefs.
Written in Enfield july the 8th 1741. It is One of the most important discourses by Jonathan Edwards Through this speech, Edwards defends and even created new puritan rules and conditions puritans should take into account if wanted to go to Heaven and be forgiven by God. Although it was thought to be a speech for his sermons, with Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God Jonathan Edwards experimented with the literary connotations of the age so that he tried to give a more literary aspect. The author uses several images of Hell and consequently shows the vulnerability of human beings who absolutely lost the control of their lives. These rhetorical strategies’ aims were basically to awaken his audience in a spiritual way. According to Edwards, the Enlightenment caused a state of relaxation in believers so that they did not feel fear of God’s angriness and the sins they were committing. Great amount of exaggerations throughout his sermon in order to cause a greater impact on his readers. By these exaggerations, everyone felt something, emotions sprang out of believers and felt guilty of their sins. People did become mad and scandalous. However, many puritan theologists criticised this sermon because of its danger on the puritan community.
Benjamin Franklin. He borned in Boston in 1706. He was a politician and a diplomat. He was one of the founding fathers who helped to draft the Declaration of Independence and the Us Constitution. He negotiated the 1783 Treaty of Paris ending the Revolutionary War. Writer’s purpose: Benjamin Franklin claims to write to show his own life as an example for his son, as well as to be a model for the betterment of others. This general motive for writing indicates Franklin’s constant interest in self-improvement. Themes and motifs: Religion. Regarding religious themes, Franklin thanks God constantly during his Autobiography and even states that everything good that has happened to him is owing to God’s providence. Memory and past. The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin is highly concerned with memory. Franklin’s autobiography is a work of memory, a “recollection” of all the experiences that have marked his life. Both his almanack and his autobiography shared the skills and habits which the author considered important to everyone, not only upper-classes. The clever use of popular sayings encouraged popular wisdom which is seen as important and useful as the school knowledge. In fact, these two works have been considered by scholars as the rst self-help books. This type of book became a typical American literary form from the 18th Century till nowadays. Something else to take into account is that Franklin claims for success in earthly life and not in heavenly life as did puritans. He was a very positive man who truly believed in human nature and encouraged Americans to organise a plan if wanted to become successful.
Hector St. John de Crèvecoeur. He was born in France (Normandy), but was educated in England for most of his life. He immigrated to America just before the Revolution, thus was a witness. America would become his adopted homeland. He is known mostly for his Letters from an American Farmer (1782), in which he spoke about how the European when he went to America, underwent a series of metamorphoses, a resurrection. He became a new man.These letters were composed in New York, where he was a farmer in Pine Hill, between 1759 and 1768.The letters are written in the voice of fictional James the Farmer, who is requested by an Englishman to satisfy his curiosity about America. The author writes about the New World in the tradition of “eyewitness literature”. He offers the inside observations of a resident, instead of the bland comments of a tourist. These letters dictate terms to Europe about how America will repair the ills of the Old World. They also offer an American literary voice: the “American primitive”, who is insightful, ironic and wiser than his “civilised” counterparts. Thomas Paine. He lived in England until 1774, where his life had been a failure. Paine and Franklin were acquaintances and he thought well of him so he wrote him a letter of introduction, suggesting that he move to America. In 1774, Americans were fed up with taxation. It was a perfect time for the separation. Common sense. In 1776, a year after the Revolution started, Paine wrote his pamphlet and published it anonymously. It became an absolute and immediate success, selling 120,000 copies in the first three months. It was the best seller of all time. Its success was due to: – Its grasp of political and financial reality. – Uncanny timing. – Political point of view based on Locke’s “Social Contract”, which stated that governments exist for men, not the other way around. – Direct but eloquent style, which was easy to follow. It almost reads like a sermon, had a didactic aim, clear direction and used commonplace images, epigrams, exclamation, rhetorical questions, quotation marks and persuasive rhetorical devices.
Thomas Jefferson. Thomas Jefferson drafted the Declaration of Independence as Delegate to the first Continental Congress in 1776. He was a lawyer and had many plantations in Virginia; he was also a Governor of Virginia, Minister of Foreign Affairs in France, 3rd President of the US and founder of the University of Virginia, as well as its first rector.
On the State of Virginia. -The Context: Religion vs Reason; The Great Awakening The New Man. -Politics; Independence National Identity. -The Text: Query XIV of Thomas Jefferson’s only book.Leadership stance on slavery changed over time. His most clear account on slavery in the light of his multifaceted personality. -The Ideas: Enlightened Individual Acknowledgement of humanity and slavery as a moral mistake. Virginian Landowner Rich elitist Member of a white-dominant society with deep-rooted racism, plus… … scientific and historical approach to white supremacism. Practical Politician Justified uprooting of freed people. -The Purpose: First part is expository (18 lines) introducing the amendment to one of the 126 acts of the Law of Virginia. The rest of the text is written in a persuasive mode to convey his ideas about Slavery. Structure of the arguments are both deductive and inductive. -The Language: Clear and concise, avoiding superfluous language, although intended for a well-educated reader. Abundant use of rhetorical questions in the form of hypotheses, trying to get his audience involved. Profuse usage of epithets to reinforce his descriptions. Declaration of Independence. The Declaration is influenced by Locke and his natural law writings. He defends that it’s natural that people govern themselves and choose their governors. The Declaration is also a philosophical statement of the purposes of government generally. On July 4th, 1776, the Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. It didn’t have legal value until after the war. The Declaration served as propaganda in the US and in England as well. Britain didn’t believe in natural law as there was a monarchy. The Americans believed this was an immoral conduct against them. The Declaration is made up of 4 parts: Preamble: the purpose of the document is to proclaim independence and to justify the revolution. General philosophy of government in general and a theory of just revolution. Bill of particulars against the rule of George II. Formal announcement of independence and its legal implications. The text follows a deductive reasoning where a final conclusion is drawn after moving from the general to the specific. The actual declaration is a perfect syllogism: it goes from a general statement to a conclusion.
The New “Americanness” of U.S Literature (1820-1865). Just in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies of North-America declared themselves independent by forming a nation called the United States of America out of the British Government. It is certainly from this year when true American writers ourish with patriotic literature. For that, American writers will choose characteristic American settings, topics, characters, etc. in order to create a national identity. As a result, readers will hear stories about Indians and men confronted with a dangerous nature. The Romantic Movement. It was a movement that reached the US in the 1820s. It was a fresh new vision that electrified artistic and intellectual circles. Romanticism coincided with the period of national expansion and the discovery of a distinctive US voice. Romantic ideas centred around (1) art as inspiration, (2) spiritual and aesthetic dimension of nature and (3) metaphors of organic growth. Romantics believed that art, rather than science, could express universal truth. It was a reaction against rationality. Romanticism believed in intuition and flexibility, it underscored the importance of expressive art for the individual and society. The Romantic spirits inspired a new optimist affirmation and particularly suited a new incipient democracy: stressed individualism, affirmed value of the common person, looked to the imagination for its aesthetic and ethical values. The beginnings of the novel. Coming to terms with the outer world. The knickerbockers: Washington Irving and James Fenimore Cooper. Romanticism was already present in Cooper’s interest in the wilderness and Irving’s heroes. -Romanticism was characterized by introspection, spontaneity, intuition, and the symbiosis between Nature and human nature. The great romantic poet used nature to understand human nature. -In this period there is the rise of Gothic horror. After rationalism, the new writers were interested in the supernatural, the superstitious, and the gloomy. They believed rationalism didn’t tell and explore everything about human nature.
Washington Irving. He was a short story writer, columnist, essayist, biographer, historian and diplomat. Well known for his short story Rip Van Winkle and the legend of Sleepy Hollow which belong to his collection of 34 essays and short stories. The Legend of Sleepy Hollow. These stories have approaches to comedy, sentimental topics, etc. Through many of them, we readers can see the personality of Geoffrey Crayon. Must be understood as a both gothic and comical story. This combination is absolutely untypical and unnatural for any gothic writer since gothic stories were supposed to scare readers, not make them laugh. His aim with this was basically to make fun of superstitions so that people should be scared of these stories because it is ridiculous. In this fictional village called Sleepy Hollow, citizens strongly believe in a supernatural story of a headless horseman who seeks his lost-in-combat head. This ghostly soldier is a Hessian10 soldier originally from Germany. This story fascinated Ichabod, the protagonist of this story who arrives in this village. Ichabod does not believe in this superstition because he concludes it is absolutely irrational that a headless man can ride a horse and be around the village. The author leads the readers to interpret the story in plenty of ways. For instance, it is true that this ghostly horseman did not exist, but it was a good-skilled horseman who pranked Ichabod at the very end of the story.
James Fenimore Cooper. He comes from a quaker family. He spent most of his life in Otsego Lake (Cooperstown). He was a member of the Epischpal Church. He attended Yale University for 3 years, before being expelled. Joined the U.S Navy as a midshipman. The Last Of The Mohicans. Analysis of the novel: This story is framed in 1757 North-America during the battles against the British and French armies in the colonies. Both sides had allies and it is here where Mohicans and Delaware tribes defended the British army (good Indians) and the Hurons and Mowaks defend the Frenchs (bad Indians). Although the event is absolutely real, It has been absolutely nationalised in order to create a national novel. The author used both written and oral sources as well as conventions of literary forms (epic, historical romances and captivity narratives). He adopted all these three types of narrative in his novels until nding a capture-pursuit-rescue order. Women are represented in a stereotyped way by which the blonde woman is the stupid and pretty one, whereas the brunette woman is intelligent and not so spectacular. The aim of this story is to represent how the author thought life was like in frontiers during these battles. This life-style was a historical reality which was used by Cooper for many of his novels. Indian warriors are represented as bad and savage beings. Though there is a difference between good Indians and bad Indians, the author claims that they are all Indians and consequently different from white settlers. They can be either good and wise but very superstitious. It must be taken into account the name of both sides: noble savages (contradictory terms since they mean that they have noble principles, not trustworthy, though, because of their savage nature). French supporters are called devil, which deals with demonic terms. Magua is criticised for being a victim of the Westward and the French invasions. This Indian in particular did not know what alcohol was until he got addicted to the Frenchs. The fact that they were different from the white settlers made absolutely impossible the integration of Native-Americans in the American society.
American gothic. Since the late 18th Century, the United States has experienced the experimentation of a literary genre running in Europe known as the gothic. It is surprising how such an optimistic country, full of happiness and hope rose in the United States. Attraction to the irrational and strange beauty of sorrow. The gothic gives voice to the hide nightmare underneath the American Dream. There are existing problems in the identity of Americans as well as in the economy and society. The past history of the US resides in the colonisation of the Puritans; such a religious community still present in the 19th Century US. Hence, Americans had created an image of self-confidence whereas they deep inside call for violence and darkness.
Edgard Allan Poe. Born on January 19, 1809. He was the son of actors.His father left the family early in Poe’s life and his mother passed away from tuberculosis when he was three. Moved to a tobacco plantation in Virginia. He did not have a good relationship with his stepfather. Prolific poet since he was 13. In 1826 he attended the University of Virginia. His fiance Sarah Royster had become engaged to another man when he came back. Move to Boston. In 1827 he joined the army but was expelled. 1835, one of his short stories won a contest in the Baltimore Saturday Visiter and he began to publish more short stories as well as he started writing sharped reviews of his contemporanean. The raven. The Raven is clearly the most famous poem of Edgar Allan Poe. This poem is well-known for its highly stylised language and musicality. The narrator is a lover whose beloved Lenore has recently died. When he is reading, he is surprised by the visit of a mysterious raven that makes him get mad. The repetition of “nevermore” by the raven is the reason for his madness since the lover asks questions whose answer is “nevermore” because it is what the animal only quotes. Hence, the narrator is kind of masochistic due to his insistence. As it is said in his essay, this poem is carefully written, step by step with a precise choice of his words. It was absolutely calculated since the author tries to follow a specific purpose. Edgar Allan Poe keeps his three principles, from “The Philosophy of Composition,” of length, unity of effect and method. Everything has a meaning, so does the repetition of “nevermore,” that distresses both the reader and the narrator. Underworld. This bird maintains himself upon the bust of the Greek goddess Pallas in the studio of the scholar. This white bust makes us notice that the narrator is supposed to be a scholar, therefore rational. Nevertheless, he fights against an irrational animal which is completely opposite to the white bust of the goddess. The atmosphere, the place (unknown but far away) and the period when the story is developed (December, midnight) deals with this decadent and gothic concept Poe pretended to achieve. All these items along with the actions of both the raven and the scholar end up in sadness, fear and digging up the unconsciousness of the reader. Therefore, Edgar Allan Poe does not give any special or specific message/metaphor, but just to convey our sensations and most terrible past to such a peak of terror and madness. The scholar of the poem wants something and the opposite at the same time since he is willing to remember Lenore and at the same time forget her. Somehow, he feels pleasure of Lenore’s absence, though he likes suffering with this constant remembrance. Once the raven appears, he starts feeling worse thanks to this creature and his just-learned word “nevermore.”
Ralph Waldo Emerson. He had a religious sense of mission and consciously avoided building a logical intellectual system, he strongly believed in intuition and flexibility. Despite that, he was remarkably consistent in his call for an individualism inspired by nature: – the need for a new national vision, – the use of personal experience, – the notion of the cosmic over-soul, – the doctrine of Compensation. He was influenced by Hindu and Buddhist philosophy. Nature. Is likely one of the most relevant essays of the transcendentalist movement in the US. Knowledge about us and knowledge about God are both found in nature. Nature can show us permanent and highly relevant lessons, we will discover what to be human is in reality. How to build a worthy link between us and nature. Although this life is short, we should enjoy this life and we must do it through nature. You need quietness, solitude and, overall, meditation and attention. It is not only that, the lessons that you learn in nature must be applied to your life in a simple way. Like us, nature is wild and authoritarian. Nature has poetic qualities (like Romantics) and this idea that the poet is like the messiah, a prophet, a messenger. Indeed this poem is divided into several parts that provide different perceptions of the study of the relationship between man and nature, primarily teaching us that we are distracted in our lives and incapable of appreciating what nature offers. Retreat from the world, going to nature and enjoying its greatness are some indications this American transcendentalist gives. We are an eye and are provided with legs in order to enjoy nature. Time across nature not only in seasons but in changes in weather. Nature is discovered in all senses by ourselves who see nature in different ways. Society cannot see who it is if it does not go to nature. In this moment of ecstasies when he is in nature he declares he “becomes a transparent eyeball, I am nothing, I see all” (Emerson, 1847), that means that we are trying to discover the true of ourselves but it is clear that nature is an overwhelming force that makes us understand it. Everyone disappears and then becomes a simple eye that can just see. In order to achieve that, we call for social impositions and spiritual union between man and nature.
Henry David Thoreau. He was a nonconformist with strong principles. His Walden or, Life in the Woods (1854) opens the inner frontier of self-discovery consciously shaped in a year. It’s a long poetic essay that includes both poetry and philosophy. The essay challenges readers to examine their lives. The style is eclectic, punning and richly metaphorical. The essay Walden. Is a collection of his routines and experiences living in the countryside. Afternoons and evenings were basically dedicated to contemplation. He felt freedom and happiness in such a lifestyle. He reckoned that cities were like prisons, oppressive places. Great attention to nature and his spiritual communion to nature. Indeed, Thoreau used his scientific knowledge on nature to establish what is important to take into account for further scientific and naturalistic studies. His last essay and his own example is that living with nature is absolutely possible and gratifying; scepticism about the technological and industrial products. In addition, he put into practice human self-reliance and economical and social independence. Thoreau simply realised that he did not need either civilisation or money to be happy. It means that his labour and work is fair enough for living happily and successfully. -Romantic vision tended to express itself in the form Hawthorne called “Romance”: a heightened, emotional and symbolic form of novel. -Romances were not love stories but serious novels that used special techniques to communicate complex and subtle meanings -Instead of carefully defining realistic characters through a wealth of detail (as most English or continental novelists did) Nathaniel Hawthorne, Hernan Melville and Edgar Allan Poe shaped heroic figures larger than life, burning with mythic significance. -One reason for this fictional exploration into the hidden recesses of the soul is the absence of a settled , traditional community life -American novelists were faced with a history of strife and revolution, a geography of vast wilderness so novels from this period reveal a revolutionary absence of tradition.-They had to depend on their own devices: America was in part an undefined, constantly moving frontier populated by immigrants speaking foreign languages and following strange and crude ways of life. -Thus, the main characters in this period find themselves alone. -Novelists had to reinvent new forms, new techniques.
Nathaniel Hawthorne. Born on July 4, 1804, in Salem Massachusetts, Nathaniel Hawthorne’s life was steeped in the Puritan legacy.Nathaniel Hawthorne is considered one of the unquestionable gures of the American Renaissance along with Herman Melville and Edgar Allan Poe. His works have become literary points of study for a long time due to their high complexity. Unlike many other writers, Hawthorne could enjoy his incomes when selling out novels thanks to the success he had among American readers. These romances, like The Scarlet Letter, are absolutely full of irony, symbols and, hence, ambiguity which does lead to speculations. It means that there is not a single way of interpreting Hawthorne’s romances, though they seem to be rather conventional. When reading The Scarlet Letter, you may realise that Hawthorne is a man who defends women’s rights (to a short extent) and encourages them to do what they feel is right. Nonetheless, he ends inhuman the lack of mercy they had since Puritans punished and humiliated women (and men) when committing adultery rst by sentencing them to death and lately by making them carry a scarlet letter A on their chest. His admiration for Puritanism comes with the idea of predestination treated previously in early units. It means that we are not safe just by being Christians, since God has chosen who will ascend to Heaven and who will not before being born. Hawthorne considers that human nature is ambiguous so that people could be both good and bad. Obsession of sin in everyday life is another topic which characterises Puritan colonists. He thinks that if someone pretends not to commit a certain sin, this person is likely to end up doing it. He criticises evil as part of our lives, so we should not be worried about ascending to Heaven or not because everyone tends to sin anyway. Main topics in The Scarlet Letter. Adultery Certainly, Puritan communities in North-America used to humiliate and condemn those adulterous members by making them wear the letter A (for “adultery”) on their chest. For Puritans, this sin, commonly recognised as a private matter, becomes completely public. The scarlet A Hester is obliged to wear is meant to remind her of her stigma and terrible crime committed by herself and the unknown Pearl’s father. In the Bible, adultery was a terrible crime which ended up in death. Puritans understood that sexual transgression is a violation of the covenant with God and his members. This is the reason why it turns into a public matter. Eternal salvation could only be ensured if the whole Puritan community culprits the covenant. Hence, there are three agreements violated in The Scarlet Letter: the covenant with God, the contract with the community and its members and the institution of marriage. Puritans did believe they were creating the Kingdom of God, so every law established in the Bible should be respected. Hester was rstly unfaithful with her husband in England, secondly with God and nally with the Puritan community of Boston. Both God and her husband must be absolutely respected, so every time she gets away with this submission, she must be punished. Even if her husband knew about this sin and forgives her, her community can still go over her sin and punish her since it is a clear disobedience to God. According to Winthrop writings of the 1640s, adulterous were sentenced to death and even at John Hathorne’s times (1680s) this practice was still done. However, in 1694, the Plymouth Law established that every woman who committed this sin was obliged to wear the scarlet A on. It is difficult to know exactly the position of the author on this matter. Some critics believe that he redenes adultery as a private matter instead of a public one. It is unnecessary punishing Hester or any woman on Earth since they will be punished by God in Heaven. It is enough suffering what Hester suffers in her heart and will be later on condemned by God at the Judgement Day.
Therefore, society’s salvation is not at risk because of her affair or sin. Consequences of sin and knowledge This stems from the original sin of Adam and Eve, when they disobeyed God by eating an apple from the forbidden tree of wisdom. AGer the Puritan community of Boston sentenced Hester to wearing the scarlet A on, both Hester and Arthur cannot live together nor be seen during seven years. Metaphorically, Hester is expelled from Paradise aGer eating the forbidden apple. The consequences of this sin are wearing a scarlet A from “adultery” and being marginalized in the forest as an outcast. The difference with the original sin is that Hester recognises and accepts her sin and its consequences, whereas Arthur suffers privately and cannot confess what he did.
Frederick Douglass. Was an American social reformer, abolitionist, orator, writer, and statesman. After escaping from slavery in Maryland, he became a national leader of the abolitionist movement in Massachusetts and New York, becoming famous for his oratoryand incisive antislavery writings. Accordingly, he was described by abolitionists in his time as a living counter-example to slaveholders’ arguments that slaves lacked the intellectual capacity to function as independent American citizens.Likewise, Northerners at the time found it hard to believe that such a great orator had once been a slave. An American slave. Written by himself (1845), readers can get shocked just by this “an American slave.” The writer himself makes reference to two remarkable things: rstly, he includes himself into the great amount of slaves in North-America and also calls himself “American” and not other things like “African- American.” In 1850, fugitive slave laws 15 were approved in the United States of America. Since Frederick Douglass was unprotected in the US, he decided to move to the UK in order to enjoy more freedom. He will keep on ghting anti-slavery right in Britain and just when he returned to the States he had gathered enough money to buy his freedom. In The Narrative of the life of Frederick Douglass, an American slave, written by himself, Douglass is saying in some way that he is more than a slave and that he can be a writer as white men. He wanted to demonstrate that the assumption of white people about the incapacity of slaves in writing was uncertain, so that he ended up writing like them. His other aim was to narrate a true story so that readers can feel sympathy for him. Nevertheless, he did not write that simple (something required by Northerns) but in a literary way. In fact, Frederick Douglass found inspiration in other abolitionist texts, sermons and literary works. Americans believed that Frederick Douglass was a true black slave and consequently someone more reliable than white abolitionists. African-Americans needed to be proud if they wanted to be read and believed by other white citizens. He transmitted true testimonies and added up new episodes to the history of African-American slaves by including himself among the vast amount of slaves in the USA. However, he obtained some help which raised him intellectually. The most interesting point for readers is undoubtedly the runaway of these slaves. Unfortunately, he had to omit those details with the purpose of protecting other slaves whose “owners” would know their methodology. Nevertheless, there is more than that like the mistreating and cruelty over these slaves.