Khilafat Movement, Nehru Report, Pakistan Resolution

Posted on Feb 4, 2024 in History

Khilafat Movement

Introduction:The Khilafat movement was a religio-political movement launched by the Muslims of British India for the retention of the Ottoman Caliphate and for not handing over the control of Muslim holy places to non-Muslims.

Turkey sided with Germany in World War 1. As it began to lose the war, concerns were expressed in India about the future of Turkey. It was a peak period from 1919 to 1922 casting demonstrations, boycott, and other pressure by the two major communities, the Hindus and the Muslims. Being brothers, the Indian Muslims realized their religious duty to help the Muslim country. It was the extra territorial attachments based on Islam. Another factor same to the first was that the Indian Muslims considered Ottoman Caliphate a symbol of unity of the Muslim world as Ummah.

Goals:

  1. Ottoman Khilafat should be kept intact.
  2. Territorial solidarity of Turkey be preserved.
  3. Control of holy the places should not be given to non-Muslims.

Protests in India:All India Khilafat Committee was formed at Bombay in July 1919. The first Khilafat Conference at Delhi in November 1919 was arranged in which the Congress leaders like Gandhi and Nehru participated. In this way, the major political parties joined hands to assault the injustice with the Muslim community. These steps were announced:

  • No participation in victory celebrations.
  • Boycott of British goods
  • Non Cooperation with the Government

The second Khilafat Conference (Amritsar) was held in Dec. 1919.

Maulana Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali joined the session after being released from prison. In Jan. 1920, M. A. Ansari led a delegation to Viceroy while Maulana M. A. Jauhar to Europe. The Khilafat Committee decided to start non-cooperation in collaboration with the Congress in May 1920.

Conclusions:

It was re-affirmation of the reality that religion is a mobilizing force and especially Islam has mobilization capacity to organize masses.

It was the movement launched on the basis of extra-territorialism. Later, no such movement but Pan-Islamic sentiments continued.

It resulted in the sufferings of the Muslims. Hindu-Muslim unity proved short-lived.

Reactivation of the Muslim League and other Muslim organizations to restart their activities as a separate nation was the great outcome.

THE NEHRU REPORT: 1928

Introduction:The main objective was to constitute proposals for the Indian Constitution. The Congress called All Parties Conference that appointed a 10-member committee in May 1928 under the Chairmanship of Motilal Nehru and Secretary ship of Jawaharlal Nehru.

Main points of the report:

Recommendations that threatened Muslim interests are:

  1. No Separate electorate.
  2. No One-third seats for Muslims in Central Assembly.
  3. No reservation of seats for Muslims in Punjab and Bengal. In Hindu-majority Provinces, the Muslims may be given seats according to population.
  4. Sind to be made a province if it can bear its expenses. Balochistan, NWFP were accepted to be given constitutional status on certain conditions.

Jinnah’s Answer:Quaid-i-Azam tried to get amendments in the Report in the All Parties Conference in Calcutta but did not succeed. This is the very moment when Jinnah remarked, “It is parting of the ways.” He presented the 14 points as a Muslim leader.

PAKISTAN Resolution

Introduction:Pakistan Resolution was the turning point in the history of Pakistan. It provides a way to the Muslims, leading to the destination of a complete independence.

The Pakistan Resolution:In 1940, the annual session of Muslim League was held at Lahore in Minto Park (Iqbal Park) under the leadership of Quaid-e-Azam and a resolution was passed on 23 March 1940. The Resolution was moved by Bengal Chief Minister Maulvi Fazlul Haq and seconded by Chaudry Khaliq-uz-Zaman. It stated that:

“The areas, in which Muslims are numerically in majority as in the North-Western and Eastern zones of India, should be grouped to constitute independent states in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign. Effective and mandatory safeguards should be specifically provided in the constitution for minorities for the protection of their religion, cultural, economic, political, administrative and other rights.”

Muslims Acceptance and Hindus Rejection:The Muslims who had assembled the meeting plan in a large number unanimously accepted the Resolution. The Hindu readers and newspaper raise an outcry after the Resolution. They refused it and referred to the partition as “Vivisection of Motherland”.

Gandhi said that:

“Dividing India was like dividing a cow.”

Quaid-e-Azam warned the Hindus that:

“If the Hindus tried to get the whole of India they would lose the whole, but if they gave one-third to the Muslims they would get two-thirds.

Cripps Mission (1942)

Introduction:British Government sent a mission to India in 1942 under Sir Stafford Cripps, the Lord Privy Seal, in order to achieve Hindu-Muslim consensus on some constitutional arrangement and to convince the Indians to postpone their struggle till the end of the Second World War.

Cripps arrived in Delhi on March 22, 1942 and had series of meetings with the leading Indian politicians including Jawaharlal Nehru, Abul Kalam Azad, Quaid-i-Azam, Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan, A. K. Fazlul Haq, Dr. Ambedkar, V.D. Savarkar and Tej Bhadur Sappru etc.

Proposals of Cripps Mission:

In the meetings Cripps tried to plead his case before these political leaders and tried to convince them to accept his following proposals:

  1. During the course of the war, the British would retain their hold on India. Once the war finished, India would be granted dominion status with complete external and internal autonomy. It would however, be associated with the United Kingdom and other Dominions by a common allegiance to the Crown.
  2. At the end of the war, a Constituent Assembly would be set up with the power to frame the future constitution of India. The members of the assembly were to be elected on the basis of proportional representation by the provincial assemblies. Princely States would also be given representation in the Constituent Assembly.
  3. The provinces not agreeing to the new constitution would have the right to keep itself out of the proposed Union. Such provinces would also be entitled to create their own separate Union. The British government would also invite them to join the commonwealth
  4. During the war an interim government comprising of different parties of India would be constituted. However, defence and external affairs would be the sole responsibility of the viceroy.

Reaction of Muslim League:Quaid-i-Azam considered these proposals as “unsatisfactory” and was of the view that the acceptance of the Cripps proposals would “take the Muslims to the gallows.

Simla Conference (1945)

Background:Lord Wavell succeeded Lord Linlithgow as Viceroy of India in 1943. When he took over as Viceroy, the tide of the Second World War was turning in favour of the allies. Lord Wavell declared that British Government wanted to see India as an independent and prosperous country.

Simla Conference:When the war ended in August 1945, Viceroy Lord Wavell decided to hold a political conference to which he invited Muslim League and Congress representatives. The conference began in Simla on June 24, 1945 and lasted till July 14, 1945.

Representatives of Congress & AIML:Muslim League was represented by Quaid-i-Azam, Liaquat Ali Khan, Khwaja Nazim-ud-din, Ghulam Hussain Hidayat Ullah, Sir Muhammad Asad Ullah and Hussain Imam. The Congress was represented by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Khizar Hayat Tiwana, Dr. Khan Sahib and some other leaders.

Point of DisputeThere was a deadlock over the Muslim League’s demand that all five Muslim members of the Executive Council should be the nominees of the Muslim League. The Viceroy was of the opinion that four members should be taken from the Muslim League while the fifth member should be a Punjabi Muslim who did not belong to the Muslim League.

Failure of Conference:The Congress denied Muslim League’s claim of being the sole representative of the Indian Muslims. Quaid-i-Azam took a strong stand on these two issues and the conference failed to achieve anything and finally ended on 14th July, 1945.

cabinet mission:

Preamble:The British Labour government sent a mission to formulate some acceptable constitutional settlement. Sir Pethick Lawrence, Stafford Cripps and A. V. Alexander deliberated with the governors, members of the Executive Council and then the Indian political leaders on different proposals. Maulana Azad as the president of the Congress stressed to establish federal government and Jinnah repeated the Two Nation Theory as a universal reality. On April 19, 1946, all the newly elected Muslim members pledged in the Delhi Convention to shatter the Hindu dream of united India. In the second Simla Conference (May 15, 1946) the ML wished two legislative assemblies while anti-ML political parties favoured strong centre.

Recommendations of the Cabinet Mission:

Indian Union comprising British India and princely states.

  1. Centre to deal with foreign affairs, defence, communication, taxation.
  2. Rest of the subjects with provinces.
  3. There will be a legislature and executive comprising representatives of provinces and states.
  4. No legislation on communal affairs if the majority of the two communities are not present and voting in favour.
  5. Provinces will be divided into three groups:
  6. Hindu majority provinces e.g. UP, CP, Madras, Bombay, Bihar, Orissa.
  7. Muslim majority provinces in NW e.g. Punjab, NWFP, Balochistan and Sindh
  8. Bengal and Assam.
  9. Each group could decide what to be managed jointly and what should be managed by provinces themselves. They could decide if the group desired to frame constitution.
  10. After ten years, a province by a vote of its legislature could ask for review of relationship with the Union. It implied that a group or province could quit the Indian Union.
  11. CA (Constituent Assembly) to be elected by the elected members of the provincial assemblies. Seats to be divided into three categories: General, Muslim, and Sikh on the basis of population in provinces.

Interim Government to be set up.

The Muslim League reiterated its demand for Pakistan. It accepted the plan for two reasons:

  1. Basis and foundation of Pakistan was in the compulsory grouping and
  2. The right to ask for review

Congress’ ReactionThe Congress was critical of groupings and right to ask for review of constitutional relationship. It agreed to contest elections for the CA but declined to be bound by the proposals of the Cabinet Plan. The nonsensical stand of the Congress was that they were “free to make any change in the proposal.” Definitely the ML was alarmed by the Congress’ intentions.

3rd JUNE PLAN

Introduction:Lord mount-batten was appointed as the viceroy of India instead of Lord Wavell. He was arrived India on March 22, 1947. On 3 June 1947, he announced his plan, which is called “3rd June Plan”.

Features of the Plan:

The salient features of 3rd June plan were:

  • The British will not impose a constitution but the Constituent Assembly will frame a constitution.
  • The constitution will not be imposed on the areas that do not accept it. Opinion will be sought from them if they want to set up a separate CA (Constituent Assembly).
  • Punjab & Bengal Assemblies will meet in two parts, members from Muslim majority areas and other districts separately to decide if the province be partitioned.
  • If any part decides for partition, each group will decide which CA they wish to join.
  • Sind Assembly will decide about joining either side. Referendum in NWFP.
  • Balochistan: appropriate method.
  • Boundary Commission for Punjab and Bengal.
  • Princely states to decide for them keeping in view their geographical contiguity.

The Indian Independence Act 1947

Introduction:The British Government introduced the Indian Inde-pendence Bill in Parliament on July 4, 1947 and the Indian Independence Act was enacted after a fortnight on July 18. The Act made no reference to any new Constitution for India.

Important points of the Act:

Important points of Indian Independence Act of 1947 as under:

  • Two Independent dominions (India and Pakistan) were to be set up on 15 August, 1947.
  • Pakistan will comprise of Sindh, Baluchistan, N.W.F.P., West Punjab and East Bengal.
  • The legislatures of each dominion shall have full power to make laws for that domnion (legislative supremacy).
  • Each Dominion was empowered to modify this Act, through its Governor-General up to March 31, 1948 and thereafter by its Constituent Assembly.
  • The King’s Power to veto laws or to reserve them for His Majesty’s pleasure was given up and each new Governor-General was given the right to assent in His Majesty’s name to any Bill passed by the Dominion Legislature of his country.
  • Suzerainty and paramountcy of the British Crown over the Indian States was terminated through the Act with all treaties, agreements, etc., between the two to lapse on August 15
  • The existing arrangements between the States and the Government of India were to continue pending detailed negotiations between these states and the new Dominions.
  • The office of the Secretary of State for India was abolished. The Secretary for Commonwealth Affairs was to take on his work.
  • The words “Emperor of India” and “India Imperator” were to be dropped from the Royal-style and titles.

Radcliff’s Award

Introduction:The Indian Independence Act, 1947, provided among the provisions the appointment of two Boundary Commissions for the division of Punjab and Bengal between Pakistan and India. Each boundary commission was to consist of an equal number of representatives of India and Pakistan and of one or more impartial members.

Chairman of boundary commissions:Accordingly, Sir Cyril Radcliff was appointed as the chairman of both boundary commissions who would have the poor to make the Award.

Members of the Punjab Boundary CommissionThe members of the Punjab Boundary Commission were:

  • Din Mohammad (on behalf of Pakistan)
  • Mohammad Munir (on behalf of Pakistan)
  • Mehar Chand Mahajan (on behalf of India)
  • Tej Singh (on behalf of India)

Members of the Bengal Boundary Commission:The members of the Bengal Boundary Commission were:

  • Abu Saleh Mohammad Akram (on behalf of Pakistan)
  • S.A. Rahman (on behalf of Pakistan)
  • C.C.Biswas (on behalf of India)
  • B.K.Mukherjee (on behalf of India) All of them were High Court Judges.

DeclarationThe members of the commission had acute differences of opinion regarding the setting up of the boundaries. It was then mutually agreed that in case of conflict the chairman should give his verdict. Here again the Muslim League was made to play a losers game. Radcliff gave his verdict in favor of India and against the interest of Pakistan. In consultation with Mountbatten the partial arbitrator sliced away further areas from Pakistan and handed them over to the Hindus. As for an illustration, in Gurdaspur District of Punjab, the distribution of population was as follows (1941 Census Report):

Hindus 21.2% Sikhs 19.2%

Muslims 51.1%

Indian Christians 4.4%

Scheduled Castes (Non-Hindus) 4.0%

Quaid-e-Azam’s Reaction:

Mr. Jinnah felt so pained that he said:

“We have been the victims of a deep-laid and well-planned conspiracy, executed with utter disregard of the elementary principles of honesty, chivalry and honor.”

1940-47

Introduction:The era from 1940 to 1947 is the era of rapid changes. In the past, the demand of Pakistan was not raised clearly. It was due to Muslim achievements in this period that now we are living in a sovereign and independent state. The political events from Pakistan Resolution to the establishment of Pakistan are summarized under:

1) Pakistan Resolution 1940:The attitude of the Hindus made it clear that the Hindus and the Muslims were two separate nations. On March 23, at the annual session of Muslim League at Lahore, the famous resolution, commonly known as the Pakistan Resolution was passed. Maulvi Fazlul Haq presented it. Quiad-e-Azam said in his address:

“By all means Muslims are one nation and they needing a separate homeland where they could live their spiritual, cultural, economical, social and political lives independently.”

2) Cripps Mission 1942:Sir Stafford Cripps was sent by the British Government to India, to discuss with Indian leaders, the future Indian Constitutions. Both the Congress and the League rejected his proposal. The Congress Characterized them us “a post-dated cheque on a failing bank”. Jinnah said that if these were accepted Muslims would become a minority in their majority provinces as well.

3) Quit India Movement 1942:Congress initiated it against British, it was “open rebellion” due to which many people were killed League raised a slogan of “Divide and Quite India”.

Gandhi Jinnah Talks 1944:Gandhi held talks with Jinnah to discuss about the future of India, but no fruitful results came out of it because Gandhi did not accept Muslims as a separate nation.          “The wall between Jinnah and Gandhi was the Two Nation Theory.”

5) Lord Wavell’s Plan 1945:In May 1945, Lord Wavell, the viceroy of India, went to London and

talked about his ideas about the future of India with the British administration. The discussion resulted in the formulation of an action plan that was made public in June 1945. This plan is known as “Wavell Plan”.

6) Simla Conference 1945:Lord Wavell called a conference at Simla on 25 June 1945. The conference failed to achieve any purpose due to one-sided attitude of Lord Wavell. In this conference, Quiad-e-Azam made it clear that the Muslim League can represent Muslim of India.

General Elections 1945-46Elections for the central and provincial assemblies were held in 1945-1946 in which Muslim League won 30 seats of central legislative meant for Muslims and 430 seats out of 495 in the provincial legislative. Quiad-e-Azam said on this occasion:

“I have no doubt now in the achievement of Pakistan. The Muslims of India told the world what they want .No power of world can topple the opinion of 10 crore Muslims of India.”

7) Cabinet Mission 1946Cabinet Mission visited India in 1946 and submitted its recommendations to the Britishers. As a result, Interim Government was formed but Congress and league could not co-operate amongst them.

8) Delhi Convention 1946Quaid-e-Azam called a convention of all Muslims League members at Delhi. At the convention, every member took the pledge to under go any danger for the attainment of national goal of Pakistan.

9) 3rd June Plan 1947:Lord Mount Batten prepared the plan for transference of power according to the wish of people. He emphasized on the partition of country and told that it was the only solution of the Indian political deadlock. Both League and Congress accepted the plan.

10)14th August – Transfer of Power 1947:The transfer of power ceremony was held in Karachi. On August 15, Quaid-e-Azam was sworn in as Governor General of Pakistan and Mr. Liaqat Ali Khan was appointed his Prime Minister.

URDU LANGUAGE

Introductory Remarks:Language is the only media by which one can express his ideas and feelings. It plays a vital role in building the character of an individual as well as a nation. A language brings closer each other and it creates a sense of harmony among the people.

Pakistan has several regional languages chief of them being Pushto, Punjabi, Sindhi, Baluchi and Kashmiri; however, the national language of Pakistan is Urdu.

Importance of Urdu in National Life:

1) Means of Brotherhood and Unity:People of Pakistan are one nation; therefore, their thinking, aims and objectives are common. Their progress and prosperity depends upon their unity and unity. An important factor for achieving this unity and unity is Urdu.

2) Source of Expression:Urdu has become a source of expression, feelings, thoughts and aspiration. People of two different areas can easily understood each other ideas and thoughts by Urdu.

3) Means of Communication and Co-ordination:Urdu serves as a means of communication and is a binding force between all the five provinces of Pakistan. People living in different provinces realize that in spite of speaking different languages, they are joined together by one national language, which is the heritage of all.

  1. National and Official Language:Quaid-e-Azam declared on 21st March 1948, Urdu to be the national and official language of Pakistan.

Conclusion:Being the National language of the country, it is the binding force in different parts of Pakistan. The officers have adopted Urdu language in their official work and the Government has published a dictionary containing Urdu

Sindhi Language

Introduction:Sindhi is one of the important regional languages of Pakistan. It appears that Sindhi was spoken in the Indus Delta from time immemorial. It is said that the language of the people of Moen-jo-Daro contained elements of present era Sindhi language.

Dialects of Sindhi:It has different dialects in different parts of Sindh like ‘Surili’, ‘Wacholi’, ‘Laadi’, ‘Thari’, ‘Kohistani’ and ‘Laasi’ etc. However, the basic language remains the same.

Famous Sindhi Poets:

Some of famous Sindhi poets are following:

  1. Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai
  2. Sachal Sarmas
  3. Makhdoom Noor
  4. Shah Inayat
  5. Bedil
  6. Sabit Ali Shah
  7. Kazi Kazah


Punjabi Language

Introduction:Punjabi is the language of the province ‘Punjab’. It links back to the Aryan language Prakrit. However, with time, the vocabulary of Punjabi language became a mixture of Persian, Arabic and Turkish words.

Dialects of Punjabi:It has different dialects in different parts of Punjab. Dialects of Punjabi may be divided into two groups: Eastern and western. Eastern consist of ‘Bhatyani’, ‘Rathi’ and ‘Maalvi’ etc, while western consist of ‘Saraiki’, ‘Potohari’, ‘Dhani’, ‘Sitara-Puri’ and ‘Jaangli’ etc. However, the basic language remains the same.

Famous Punjabi Poets:Panjabi is rich in mystical and romantic poetry. Some of the famous poets of Punjabi language include:

  1. Baba Farid Baksh
  2. Shaikh Ibrahim Farid Sani
    1. Madhu Lal Hussain
    2. Sultan Bahu
    3. Bhullay Shah
    4. Ali Haider
    5. Waris Shah

      Balochi Language

      Introduction:Baluchi is the regional language of Baluchistan. It is the least developed of all the regional languages. Baluchi tribes that migrated from Iran spread it.

      History of Baluchi literature:The history of Baluchi literature may be divided into four periods:

      1. Early Medieval Period – 1430 to 1600
      2. Later Medieval Period – 1600 to 1850
      3. Modern Period – 1850 to 1930
      4. Contemporary Period – 1930 to date

      Types of BaluchiThere are two types of Baluchi namely:

      1. Sulemani (East Baluchistan)
      2. Makrani (West Baluchistan)
      3. Rakhshani

      Famous Poets of BaluchiSome of the most literary figures of Baluchi are:

      1. Azad Jamaldini
      2. Ulfat Naseem
      3. Abdul Qadir Shahwani
      4. Malik Mohammad Ramzan
      5. Mir Aqil Maingal
      6. Jam Darag
      7. Shah Mureed
      8. Shahdab


Pushto Language

Introduction:Pushto is the regional language of the K.P.K. and tribal areas. It belongs to the East Iranian group of languages and contains many Persian, Arabic, Greek and Pehlevi words.

Dialects of Pushto:Dialects of Pushto may be divided into two groups:

Yousuf-Zai: It is accent of people living in northern areas.

Kandhari/Khatak: It is accent of people living in southern areas.

Famous Pushto Poets:

Some of the well-known poets of Pushto language are:

  1. Amir Karoro
  2. Khushal Khan Khatak
  3. Rehman Baba
  4. Sher Shah Soori
  5. Saif Ullah
  6. Kazim Kazim

Kashmiri Language

IntroductionKashmiri is the language of the people of the Indian-occupied Kashmir and Azad Kashmir. This language has been derived from Sanskrit. Kashmiri is generally spoken in Muslim families of the valley. It contains many Turkish, Arabic and Persian words. It is written in the Persian script.

Dialects of Kashmiri:It has three famous dialects:

  1. Salmanki
  2. Gandhoro
  3. Gaami

Kashmiri Literary Figures:Kashmiri, like all the regional languages of Pakistan, had its early literature in the form of poetry. It began with the composition of folk songs and ballads. Famous authors of Kashmiri language are:

  1. Shah Nooruddin
  2. Khatoon Lillah Anifa
  3. Baba Nasiruddin
  4. Ghani