English Grammar: Modals & Relative Clauses
7) Modals
Can/Can’t
Use can/can’t to talk about present ability and possibility.
Examples:
- We can ask him if he’d like to join us.
- I can’t ski. I don’t know how to.
Could
Use could to say something is possible or likely in the future.
Examples:
- Your work on this could be useful later on.
- That table could be good for my office.
Should/Shouldn’t
Use should/shouldn’t to say if something is advisable or not.
Examples:
- I think we should ask customers what they want.
- We probably shouldn’t wait any longer to start work on this.
Have to/Must
We use both have to and must to talk about something that is necessary and important, but there are some differences in meaning.
Have to: Use have to to say something is essential or that it is a general rule.
Examples:
- When you develop a new design you have to try it out a number of times.
- It has to be strong enough to carry eight people.
Must: Use must to say something is necessary or important in your personal opinion.
Examples:
- I feel that we must make the design more modern.
- It must be on my desk by the end of the day.
Note: We do not normally use you must or you mustn’t in face-to-face conversation. Use should instead.
Example:
- You must be more careful. → You should be more careful.
Don’t Have to/Mustn’t
Don’t have to: Use don’t have to to say something is not necessary.
Examples:
- It doesn’t have to be made of metal. Plastic is fine.
- They don’t have to be here. We can decide ourselves.
Mustn’t: Use mustn’t to say it is necessary or important not to do something.
Examples:
- We mustn’t forget to tell them about the party.
- They mustn’t find out about our plans. They wouldn’t like them.
Modals for Present Deduction
Use modal verbs to make guesses (deductions) about the present, based on evidence. The different modal verbs express different levels of certainty.
Must: Use must to say that you are certain something is true.
Examples:
- The door is open so Michael must be home.
- Jane was ill but she’s running around so she must be a lot better!
Can’t: Use can’t to say that you are certain something is not true.
Examples:
- This painting can’t be by Rembrandt. It’s much too modern.
- The police say he attacked someone at 7 p.m. but it can’t be true because he was with me at that time.
Could/Might: Use could or might to say something is possible.
Examples:
- It could be true that it was all his own work. It’s definitely possible.
- The package might be from David. Open it and find out!
We can also use modal verbs with a continuous form.
Examples:
- He must be feeling better!
- They might be coming later.
Key Language: Describing Qualities
- It looks very …
- It’s made of (wood/metal/leather).
- There are several features I really like.
- One of the best points is …
- It’s aimed at …
- It would appeal to …
- It’s excellent value for money.
Vocabulary
Word Building, Adjectives
art, artist, artistic, design (n/v), designer, develop, developer, developing, development, engineer (n/v), engineering, innovate, innovator, innovation, innovative, invent, inventor, invention, inventive, manufacture, manufacturer, manufacturing, produce, producer, product, productive, science, scientific, scientist, use (n/v), usable, user, well-designed.
Design
elegant, functional, futuristic, handmade, mass-produced, retro, simple, streamlined, stylish, traditional, up to date.
Abstract Nouns
consumerism, efficiency, industrialisation, modern, optimism, streamlining.
8) Defining Relative Clauses
Use defining relative clauses to identify or define things, ideas, places, time and possessions.
Example:
- Children like subjects which interest them.
Note:
- Don’t repeat the noun from the main clause or introduce a personal pronoun to replace it.
Incorrect: Have you ever been to that museum which we just drove past it?
Incorrect: That’s the man who he helped me yesterday.
A defining relative clause begins with a relative pronoun or adverb.
Relative Pronouns
That: Use that to refer to things, people or ideas.
Examples:
- That’s the book that I was looking for.
- Are you the person that I spoke to yesterday?
- You’re ignoring the point that I was making.
Which: Use which to refer to things or ideas.
Example:
- Yesterday we went to the restaurant which you recommended to us.
Who: Use who to refer to people.
Example:
- That’s the man who I bought my car from.
Whose: Use whose to refer to possession.
Example:
- He’s the teacher whose students get the best grades.
Relative Adverbs
Where: Use where to refer to places.
Example:
- He studies at a university where some of our politicians got their degrees.
When: Use when to refer to time.
Example:
- I still remember the day when we first met.
Note: If we use a relative adverb we don’t normally use a preposition in the relative clause.
Incorrect: That’s the house where I was born in.
Correct: That’s the hotel where we stayed last year.
Subject/Object Relative Clauses
The relative pronoun can be the subject or object of the relative clause.
Examples:
- What’s the name of the film that we saw yesterday? (We saw the film.)
- That’s the shop which has the dress I want to buy. (The shop has the dress.)
If the relative pronoun is the object of the relative clause, then it can be omitted.
Examples:
- What’s the name of the film (that) we saw yesterday?
- Is she the person (who) I need to speak to?
Non-Defining Relative Clauses
Non-defining relative clauses give information about something in the main clause, but do not help to identify or define it.
Example:
- The President, who is currently on a trip to the USA, said he disagreed with the decision.
Note:
- Non-defining relative clauses must have a comma before and after the clause.
- Do not use that in non-defining relative clauses. Use who or which instead.
Incorrect: The course, that was also started by Professor Smith, is ending next year.
Correct: The course, which was also started by Professor Smith, is ending next year.
We can also use non-defining relative clauses at the end of a sentence.
Example:
- Last year we visited Rome, which we thought was a really beautiful city.
Note: Non-defining relative clauses are not common in spoken English.
Key Language: Discussing Possibilities and Options
- Thinking about possibilities: There are several ways to deal with this.
- Talking about options: The good thing is … the bad thing is …
- Making suggestions: How about [+ -ing] / Supposing we …
- Changing your approach: Let’s see, what other things can we do?
- Making a decision: That’s the best solution.
- Deciding what to do next: So, the next thing to do is …
Vocabulary
Education and Studying
approach, compulsory education, continuous assessment, criticise, elementary school, environment, exam, fail, graduate, hand in, higher education, method, pace, pass, primary school, secondary school, unique.
Learning
continuing education, corporate training, correspondence course, distance learning, e-learning, home schooling, lifelong learning, postgraduate programme.