Spanish Monarchy in 18th Century: From War of Succession to Enlightenment
The War of Succession and the Treaty of Utrecht
In 1700, the death of Charles II, the last Habsburg monarch of Spain, triggered a power struggle known as the War of Succession. Philip of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV of France, and Archduke Charles of Habsburg, son of the Austrian Emperor, were the main contenders. Charles II’s will favored Philip, who became Philip V of Spain. This ignited conflict among European powers, with England, Holland, and Portugal backing the Austrian candidate. The war was fought on European and Spanish soil, with the Crown of Aragon supporting Austria and the Crown of Castile supporting the French candidate.
While the Bourbons initially struggled against the allied forces, the death of the Austrian Emperor in 1711 shifted the balance. Archduke Charles ascended to the Austrian throne, prompting England and Holland to seek peace and recognize Philip V as King of Spain. The Treaty of Utrecht (1713) formalized this, granting significant concessions to Austria (Milan, Flanders, Naples, and Sardinia) and England (Gibraltar and Minorca, along with trade privileges in Spanish America).
The Eighteenth-Century Dynastic Change: Internal Reforms
The Bourbon dynasty ushered in an era of absolutism in Spain. The early Bourbon kings focused on centralizing power and reforming the administration. Philip V implemented the Decrees of Nueva Planta, extending Castile’s political and administrative structure to the territories of the former Crown of Aragon. This created a more unified monarchy, with the exception of Navarra and the Basque Country.
The Bourbons also streamlined the government by suppressing most of the Councils, replacing them with Secretariats. They abolished viceroyalties and traditional provincial boundaries, appointing instead a Captain General with military and administrative authority in each region. The institution of magistrates, originating in Castile, was expanded with the introduction and spread of Royal Audiences.
Furthermore, the Bourbons attempted to reform the tax system, aiming for a single, universal tax to replace the multitude of existing taxes. However, strong opposition from the privileged classes ultimately thwarted this effort, forcing the monarchy to retain the old system.
The Practice of Enlightened Despotism: Carlos III
Enlightened Despotism, a reformist policy adopted by absolute monarchies in 18th century Europe, aimed to improve society through state intervention in various aspects of life. In Spain, Carlos III was the most prominent advocate of these reforms.
Upon inheriting the throne in 1759, Carlos III faced resistance from privileged groups, culminating in the Esquilache Riots. This forced him to temporarily slow down his reform program. However, he later resumed his efforts, implementing measures to curtail the privileges of the Ancien Régime.
In the religious sphere, Carlos III asserted the right to appoint church officials, sought to control the Inquisition, limited the founding of new monasteries, and actively resisted the Church’s attempts to exert undue influence within the state.
The Evolution of Spanish Foreign Policy in Europe During the Eighteenth Century
The Bourbon reign began with a decline in Spain’s international power and influence. While the 18th century was relatively peaceful, Spain was involved in several conflicts, primarily to defend its interests in Italy. Seeking allies, Philip V forged a series of pacts with France, aligning the two monarchies’ interests throughout the century.
Ferdinand VI’s reign marked a period of neutrality in Spanish foreign policy. He focused on strengthening the army and rebuilding the navy to maintain communication with the American colonies. Under Carlos III, Spain joined France in the Seven Years’ War against England.
The Enlightenment in Spain
The Enlightenment, a philosophical movement emphasizing reason and critical thinking, originated in France and challenged the existing socio-economic and political order of the Old Regime. Its adoption in Spain was slow and difficult due to factors such as the lack of a strong bourgeoisie and the significant influence of the Church.
Facing indifference from the aristocracy and clergy, and the general ignorance of the masses, Spanish Enlightenment thinkers prioritized education. They advocated for compulsory primary education for all, challenging the dominance of religious orders and the privileged classes.
Another key concern for Spanish Enlightenment thinkers was the country’s financial situation. They sought to analyze the economic realities and propose reforms to address the existing problems.
The Minor Habsburg Spain: The Validos
Following the death of Philip II, Spain was ruled by three Habsburg kings who heavily relied on validos (favorites) to handle government affairs. These individuals held significant power and influence, acting as the king’s trusted advisors.
Philip III’s valido was the Duke of Lerma, who eventually lost power and was succeeded by his son, the Duke of Uceda. Philip IV entrusted his reign largely to the Count-Duke of Olivares, whose policies ultimately proved unsuccessful.
The dynasty concluded with the reign of Charles II, a sickly and weak monarch who died without an heir. During his minority, his mother, Mariana of Austria, served as regent and relied on the Jesuit priest Nithard as her valido. Charles II’s reign was marked by political instability and a succession of validos.
The Minor Habsburg Spain: The Internal Conflicts
Philip III continued the policy of religious intolerance, culminating in the expulsion of the Moriscos in 1609. This had detrimental consequences, leading to depopulation and the loss of a valuable community of farmers and artisans.
Under Philip IV, the Count-Duke of Olivares attempted to centralize power and restore Spain’s international prestige through military campaigns. However, his efforts resulted in failures and widespread social unrest.
Charles II’s reign was characterized by a sense of lawlessness, power struggles, the decline of Spain’s international standing in favor of France, and anxieties over the succession issue.