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MATERIAL ETHICS

Eudaimonism: aristotle

-Aristotle wouldn’t agree with the elementary hedonism that affirms that good is simply pleasure (sensible) this would be of animals and plants.

-3 types of soul: vegetative soul (owned by plants). Sensitive soul (characteristicas of animals). Rational soul (exclusive of the human being): Gives us radically different potations those of other living beings. So only by developing our rationality can we achive a good human life.

-According to “aristotelian theory of virtue”, to become a good person we must gobern our actions by a calculation of the middle term between excess and deffect.

-However, in order to always act in a fair middle term, the human being needs to adquire a habit of behaviour that he will only achive with constancy and the habit of always acting well.

-In this way, if one has the wisdom to know what is the middle term, and, in addition, the habit of acting according to that wisdom, then he will achive the true ethical virtue

Hedonism: epicurus

-moderate conception of pleasures.

-they considered that good should be shared to be truly good

-if we look for pleasure and avoid pain and suffering, we active good. But sometimes, this good is an own and selfish good.

-that is way the epicurens tried to defend the archivmenet of a shared good rather an individual good.

-types of desires: natural, necessary. Not natural, necessary. not natural, not ncessary

Stocism:

-the stoic, pretends to live according to reason and free of passions

-invites to master the reactions by self-control. You must know what is or isn’t under your control, that’s why it prometes a life in tune with natural laws

-the concept of autorchy: represent the independence of everything external

Utilitarism

-Empiricist: he thinks ethics are founded on the practical effetcs of an action

-principle of utility: to know when something is moraly good or bad, we would only have to follow the “hedonistic calculus”. How?

-this calculation would allow us to establish the pleasure and pains that are inphicit in any act.

-therefore, allows us to judge the moral consequences of that act.

-when an act contains a greator number of pleasurable consequences than painful ones, such an act would be preferaple to its opposite.

-since the human being is a socral being, it isn’t possible to achieve happiness in society (and this leds us to individual pleasure)

-therefore, the truly good thing is to get the gratest pleasure for the gratest amount of people.

STUART MILL UTILITARISM:

-some pleasures are more valuable than others because they are nigher quality pleasures.

-better to be socrates dissatisfied that a pig satisfied.

FORMAL ETHICS

Kant: (subjective)

-assunption: we cannot determinate what a good human life consst of certeinly. Our will is free, we have free will-liberty. Duty must have its its fundations in something stranger that constingency (a future event which is possible but cannot be predicted certainly)

-for kant the good will is the starting point (goal of moral education)

-moral laws, like natural laws, must be universal and neccessary principles, that us how we should act to act correctly, to achive good. This must take form of the “categorical imperative”

-if we don’t tell individuals what look but how, we are letting eberyone live their own life but being morally good

Rawls:

-Justice is the main value of his ethics. In that way, he link ethics with politics.

-according to him: human nature is like: people tend to think of their own position when they describe a better world.

-theory of justice: based on 2 principles he thought a reasonable person would accept

Apel+hobermas:

-the base of their ethic is the communication (against kant’s philosophy of conscience, subjective)

-it finds universality rased on an agreement among different points of view (not relativism). This is only possible by communication.

-assumption: communication implies all putiripants are aqueal and free

-according to then, in the idea situation of deliverative communication there must be simetry (give the same importance and value to both sides of the communication act)

POLITICS

Cynics: Antistenes and Diogenes of sinope

-defectes ones in history

-they set a rol model for existance

-in cynics we will always find: 1. A rejection of material goods (because glory and honor doesn’t librate you, but slaves you). 2. a search for connection with nature and animals. 3. a concern to behave in an ethically correct way. all this means rejecting social convections to look for behave honestly.

-they are characterized by Parrhesra: they said everything they thought fot not being able to shut up, or beacuse their sase of distinction between what is thoght what could be said had been last: raw honestly

-and also by anadeia: identified by “shomeless”. Only human fell shame, so we use it as a control mechanism (there are many thing everybody do, so why not normalite and stop feeling shame)

-so people saw cynics as punks or urbans (epicurean: hyppies gander). They had bad repulation because they used “performances” to send their message.

Nietzsche:

-his way of thinking was an inversion of christian morality. According to him, the christian virtues of looking after the week and helpless had surprising origins (morality of kindness had its beginnings in feeling of envy)→christianity and morality derived from treating every individual as having the same worth→for nietzsche→serious mistake

-for him that was the morality of the herd (popular cukture masses): defends equality. Are not able to create values, your values are those that tell you (by priests). Among these values predominates the values of weekness (compassion, forgiveness). Their will is negative and reactive (they don’t love themselves, only they hate masters beacuse they are superior)

-for him the masters where the good ones, the strong one, the few. This is why they need to be protected from the herd (the rest)

POLITICAL IDEAS

Until the Renaissance:

-Plato’s republic:

-the first utopion thought.

-it was an aristocratic government (the government of the best).

-Feminist (philosophers could be women).

-Comunist state: property is comon property.

-Machiavelli:

-political realism (montain power).

-Separation of ethics and politics.

-Roman republic (2 consulates).

-“Cynic” in the modern sense.

-“The end justifies the means”, he was flexible about the form (influenced by hobbes or Nietzsche).

-State politics.

In the 17-18 centuries:

contractualists: (legitimation of power) considered society and the state the result of a pact between individuals who crime a situation that procedes society, “state of nature”

-hobbes (extreme):

-human beings in a state of nature→Ruthless, selfish (only satisfy it’s own interest).

-Human life before society→chaos→society was the solution.

-Lase liberties but continue alive. –

-Absolute monarchy.

-locke (middle term):

-Human beings in a state of nature→not that bad (only conflicts to protect their own rights).

-State’s purpose→avoid those conflicts→but bakanced power.

-Property is the key→if you work for it, it’s yours.

-Talked about legitimation of the government, and limits to it.

-Liberal state of law

-Rousseau (extreme):

-human being in a state of nature→good→”the good savage”.

-Society is the problem.

-Property is also a problem→inequalities between human beings→grandfather of the communists.

-Solution→democratic society/state.

-The general will as the will of all.

-We are “forced to be free”.

-Democratic “colective” state “totalitarian”

In the 19-20 centuries:

-Marx and lenin:

-the society but on a divission of classes→class struggle.

-The origin of the class struggle was the institution of property.

-Owners steal the proletarism, this work for them but recive nothing.

-To end with class struggle→not private property but communal property.

-Objective: communist society, a social state.

-extreme left totalitarian state: stalin’s sosiet union

-extreme right totalitarism states: fascist’s states: III reich, mussolini’s Italy, franco’s spain

Deffinitions

Community: a group of people with diverse characteristics who are linked by social ties, share como perspectives and engage in joint action in geographical locations.

society: a community, nation or broad grouping of people having common traditions, institutions and collective activities and interests.

Nation: it’s a specific, social, economic and cultual community, after with a common lenguage, culture and history, living in neighbouring territories, with “independent” political institutions.

state: states include the type of social, economic and political organization that regulates communty life.

government: the group of people with the authority to govern a country or state; a particular ministry in office. Montesquie: he concluded that the best form of government was one in which the legislative, executive and judical powers were separate and kept each other in check to prevent any branch from becoming too powerful.

civil society: it’s made up of people who act within organised groups of varying complecities, to defend comon interests and promote collective actions which benefit the individuals of these groups or third parties.

legality: it’s the carrying out of actions in accordance with the law.

legitimacy: consists of a political regime’s right to exercise power.

authority: it’s the right of some to influence others when their power is recognised by those who accept the duty.